Adverb

Adverb(the term is formed by imprecise tracing paper from Lat. adverbium) - part of speech, unchangeable, denoting a sign of an action, a sign of a sign. In school teaching, it is customary to say that the words of this class answer the questions “how?”, “where?”, “where?”, “from where?”, “when?”, “why?”, “for what purpose?”, "in what degree?" and most often refer to verbs and denote a sign of action. Adverbs are formed through the process of adverbialization.

Classification by lexical meaning

• Circumstantial:
  • time- indicate the time of action ( yesterday, today, tomorrow, morning, afternoon, evening, night, spring, now, later, later, always);
  • places- indicate the place where the action takes place ( far, nearby, in the distance, near, here, there, to the right, to the left, back, from a distance, towards, from the side, about);
  • causes- indicate the reason for the action ( blindly, rashly, foolishly, drunk, involuntarily, not without reason);
  • goals- indicate the purpose of the action ( on purpose, on purpose, out of spite, in defiance, as a joke, intentionally, unintentionally, accidentally).
• Definitive:
  • quality- express a characteristic or assessment of an action or attribute ( cold, brutal, sad, strange, monstrous, scary, fast, right);
  • quantitative- determine the measure or degree of manifestation of an action or sign ( a lot, a little, a little, doubly, triple, twice, thrice, two, three, six, very, very, completely, absolutely);
  • method and mode of action- indicate the method of performing an action ( running, galloping, walking, swimming, shuffling, idling, supine, for sure);
  • comparisons and likenings - (womanly, bearish, old, our way, friendly, still, nose hooked, upright, squiggle, on end, hedgehog, pillar);
  • totality - (two, three, publicly, together).

Qualitative adverbs, formed from qualitative adjectives, have degrees of comparison

• comparative degree is expressed:
  • syntactically: using suffixes -her(-to her), -she, -e"-same" ( more interesting, longer, stronger, louder). Some adverbs form the comparative degree suppletively, that is, changing the stem: good - better, much more, little - less", "deep-deeper";
  • analytically: using an auxiliary word more in combination with the original form of the adverb: more strongly, more vile, more disgusting etc.
• The superlative degree is expressed:
  • syntactically (Greek) σοφὸς - σοφοτατα ): wisely - wisest of all; using suffixes -eysh-, -aysh-: I humbly ask, I bow to you. Very rarely used in modern Russian;
  • analytically: by combining the word most with the original form of the adverb: most disgusting, most scary, the worst etc. It has a bookish connotation and is used mostly in the scientific style of speech and journalism;
  • complex form: combination of words everyone, Total with the synthetic form of the comparative degree: the best, the best thing, most.

There are adverbs significant, if they are formed from significant words, that is, if adverbs name some attribute directly ( quiet, loud, evening).

There are also adverbs pronominal, that is, if the adverb does not name a characteristic, but only points to it, that is, to a manner of action ( So), locations ( there, here, here, there), time of action ( when, then, then, always), reason ( because, therefore), target ( then). Pronominal adverbs are not a category of adverbs, but a category of pronouns. In the Russian language, significant adverbs predominate.

Classification by method of education

• suffixal: fast - quickly, creative - creatively;
• prefix-suffixal: dry - dry;
• prefixal: good - not good, where - nowhere;
• Addition of different types:
  • addition of words: barely, barely - barely, recklessly - insanely;
  • addition with first element semi-: reclining; half-sitting
  • addition with the addition of a suffix or prefix and suffix: walk by - pass by, gender, strength - half strength.

Spelling adverbs

• Use of hyphen:
  • in adverbs on -ki, -y, -oh with attachment By-: like a friend;
  • in adverbs on -s, -th with attachment in-/in-, formed from ordinal numbers ( Firstly);
  • in indefinite adverbs with a prefix some and suffixes -something/-something (somewhere, something, somehow, after all);
  • in adverbs formed:
    • repetition of words and the basics of words (barely, willy-nilly, after all);
    • a combination of synonymous words (unexpectedly).
• Console By- written together:
  • in adverbs formed from adjectives using this prefix and suffixes -y, - little, -onku (simply);
  • with forms of comparative degree of adverbs ( higher);

Note: phrases that have the meaning of circumstances are written separately ( in the end, point to point). Combinations exactly the same, criss-cross, inside out are written with a hyphen because these are already adverbs, not nouns.

• They write together:
  • prepositions with adverbs ( until now, from outside, forever);
  • adverbs formed by combining prepositions V And on with collective numerals ( doubled, three times);
  • adverbs formed by combining prepositions with full adjectives ( hard-boiled).
  • as a rule, adverbs formed by combining a preposition and a noun ( up, above, in the distance, due to);
  • adverbs formed by combining a preposition with interrogative and demonstrative pronouns ( Why, from what).

Note: adverb consisting of a preposition V and a full adjective starting with a vowel are written separately ( openly)

Adverbs in other languages

Literature

• "Modern Russian Language", ed. D. E. Rosenthal

Links

• Ales Brandner Adverbs in the circle of parts of speech - The history of their origin (formation) (doc). (inaccessible link - story) Retrieved January 20, 2010.

Parts of speech

Wikimedia Foundation.

2010.:

• Synonyms
• Participle

Pretext

See what “Adverb” is in other dictionaries: adverb - Cm …

Adverb Synonym dictionary

See what “Adverb” is in other dictionaries:- Adverb. The word adverb (Greek 【πί〴〳ημα, Latin adverbium) actually means verb (from 〳〟μα, verbum verb). But Barsov in his grammar (XVIII century) noted that the etymological meaning of the term adverb does not correspond to later ones... ... History of words - 1. ADVERB, I; Wed Linguistic A set of local dialects or dialects. languages ​​that have common dialectal features. South Great Russian village Severnovelikorusskoe village Celtic n. 2. ADVERB, I; Wed Linguistic Unchangeable part of speech...

encyclopedic Dictionary ADVERB - (calque, Latin adverbium, Greek epirrhema), part of speech, class of full-valued words, unchangeable or changeable only by degrees of comparison. Indicates a sign of action or condition (sings well, sleeps soundly) and a sign of quality (very... ...

encyclopedic Dictionary Modern encyclopedia

encyclopedic Dictionary- a group of dialects interconnected by a number of common phenomena... - part of speech, a class of full-valued words, unchangeable or changeable only by degrees of comparison. Indicates a sign of an action (state) or quality. In a sentence, it usually acts as an adverbial...

encyclopedic Dictionary Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

encyclopedic Dictionary Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- 1. ADVERB1, adverbs, cf. (ling.). A set of local dialects, dialects that have common features; a dialect is larger than a dialect. Okaya and Akaya adverbs of the Russian language. 2. ADVERB2, adverbs, cf. (gram.). Unchangeable part of speech... ADVERB 1 - ADVERB 1, I, Wed. The set of territorial dialects of what kind. language. Severnovelikorusskoe village Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 …

Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary- ADVERB 2, I, Wed. In grammar: a part of speech denoting a sign of an action, another sign (quality, property), less often an object, for example. clear, loud, here, always, home, at night, soft-boiled. Pronominal adverbs (here, there, where, where, from, ... ... - ADVERB 1, I, Wed. The set of territorial dialects of what kind. language. Severnovelikorusskoe village Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 …

See what “Adverb” is in other dictionaries:- ADVERB, I, Wed. The set of territorial dialects of what kind. language. Severnovelikorusskoe village II. ADVERB, I, Wed. In grammar: part of speech denoting a sign of an action, another sign (quality, property), less often an object, for example. clear, loud... - ADVERB 1, I, Wed. The set of territorial dialects of what kind. language. Severnovelikorusskoe village Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 …

Books

• Set of tables. English language. Noun. Pronoun. Adverb (9 tables) , . Educational album of 9 sheets. Art. 5-8658-009. Plural of nouns. Pronouns 1. Pronouns 2. Some/any. Adverbs. Nouns used only in the singular...

D. V. Sichinava, 2011

Adverb (Church Orthodox calque from Greek ἐπίρρημα, in fact, “that which is with the verb or on the verb”; Latin adverbium is also a calque of this term) - in Russian, a part of speech denoting a sign of a certain situation or another sign, in particular, degree of a sign or external characteristic of a situation. Inflection is not typical for adverbs: some adverbs have degrees of comparison. Most adverbs are formed from words (and phrases) of other parts of speech. In a sentence, adverbs usually occupy the syntactic position of adverbial:

(1) The wind lifted dry snow from the ground and carried it towards us smooth, continuously, stubbornly… [IN. G. Korolenko. Frost (1900-1901)]

1. Adverb: general information

Unlike other significant parts of speech (see Parts of speech), from a morphological point of view, adverbs in the Russian language are weakly characterized (sometimes this property is included in the definition, see), namely:

• their inflection is extremely limited;
• word formation is characterized by conversion (the transition of words or phrases into the category of adverbs without formal change, see Word Formation): continuously(cf. adjective) > continuously,at night(tv.p. noun) > at night,in place > together.

This increases the degree of homonymy of adverbs with words of other parts of speech (for example, in the Corpus, even taking into account the orthographic distinction of prepositional groups like together and adverbs like together, there are approximately as many word forms that are homonymous to adverbs as there are adverbs themselves) and makes it difficult to distinguish between them.

Typologically, the Russian language is not unique in this regard. In a number of languages ​​of the world, adverbs are considered not an independent part of speech, but a class of uses of an adjective (German) or a special “adverbial form of adjectives” (Japanese).

From a semantic-syntactic point of view, adverbs act as adverbs with a verb, adjective or other adverb or, less often, as a modifier with a noun ( way home,food on an empty stomach) and mean first of all a sign, and in particular a “sign of a sign” ( Very fast, indecent often; A. M. Peshkovsky considered the main feature of the semantics of adverbs to be the “attribute of attribute”). In the absence of inflection marking a syntactic connection (the so-called “adjacency”), the syntax and semantics of adverbs are closely intertwined.

Adverbs differ in their syntactic scope (the syntactic units to which they relate). In particular, they can syntactically relate to the predicative group (clause) as a whole (designation of “external” characteristics, assessment of the situation as a whole: the doctor came yesterday). Another possibility is that an adverb belongs to a verb group and indicates an “internal” characteristic, a parameter of the situation: drive fast[Filipenko 2003], to the adjective ( indecently frank), to noun ( way home), cm. . A number of thematic categories of adverbs are distinguished (adverbs of place, direction, time, purpose, etc., see). There is a subclass of pronominal adverbs, the semantics of which is characterized by a reference to a speech situation (see Pronoun): So,Where,When,how much etc. Adverbs differ from other parts of speech in a very high percentage of pronominal word usages (on average a third, for oral speech up to 40%, see) and lexemes (especially in some semantic classes); For the reasons for this, see.

2. Definition

In the European linguistic tradition, starting with the ancient Greek, adverbs were distinguished by the morphological sign of immutability, differing from names on a negative basis (German school formulation “what cannot be declined is considered as an adverb”:

Was man nicht deklinieren kann,

Das sieht man als Adverbium an [Isachenko 1965: 272]).

The terms themselves ἐπίρρημα And adverbium, however, have syntactic content and indicate the function of a verb modifier.

In Russian studies, only significant lexemes are classified as adverbs. By definition N.N. Durnovo [Durnovo 1929: 12], “adverbs are usually used to call full-meaning words (not partials or interjections) that do not belong to the classes of nouns, verbs and adjectives.” Similar “negative” formulations are found in S. O. Kartsevsky and A. V. Isachenko, then indeclinability is accepted as a defining feature in V. V. Vinogradov [Grammatika 1953: 606].

In a number of interpretations, additional syntactic criteria are also added to this definition. They are used both to establish an unambiguous characteristic of words (so, yesterday- always an adverb With– always a preposition), and to the differentiation of homonyms ( smooth– adverb, particle, funny– adjective, adverb, predicative). The following syntactic criteria for belonging to adverbs are mentioned in various works.

a) Criterion of a sentence member

Academic grammars contrast adverbs (which must be members of a sentence) with matching introductory words that are not considered members of the sentence: Gave three balls every year and squandered it finally(adverb = ‘in the end’) – Finally, it is not true(introductory word). Accordingly, according to this criterion, unchangeable function words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles), introductory words and interjections are separated from adverbs.

(2) Okay. Will in your opinion. Just get treatment. [B. Ekimov. Pinochet (1999)] – adverb

(3) Where should I be? Where should I work? in your opinion? At school? [WITH. Dovlatov. Grapes (1990)] – introductory word

b) Criterion of syntactic position of adverbial

From the composition of adverbs, also, starting with the works of L. V. Shcherba, predicates (“state category”) are distinguished - unchangeable words, which are characterized by the position of the predicate in combination with the connective ( me you(was/will)it's a pity,No smoking,to be married again), including forms used in impersonal sentences in - O/-e, homonymous to adverbs of circumstance ( hard(was/will)make up your mind), thereby limiting the class of adverbs proper to those lexemes that are characterized, first of all, by the syntactic position of the adverb. By the same criterion, unchangeable adjectives ( khaki,beige,Bordeaux) and pronouns ( his,her,their) are not adverbs.

In this article (and in the morphological markup of the Corpus), following the Grammar Dictionary of A. A. Zaliznyak [Zaliznyak 1977], the boundaries of the class of adverbs are used, given by the above definition, taking into account both syntactic criteria (thus, the introductory word and the predicative are recognized as separate parts of speech and are not covered in this article, see special articles Predicative and Introductory constructions).

(4) Guests funny walked and rode horses around the village, glorifying the bride and her parents. [“Folk Art” (2004)] – adverb

(5) But now she was funny, there was a real drink ahead, an appetizer and dessert - a cake with roses. [IN. Tokarev. Its own truth (2002)] – predicative

(6) Her heart was funny and purely, it forgot Sergei, it beat with new love. [IN. K. Ketlinskaya. Courage (1934-1938)] – adjective

3. Morphology

From a morphological point of view, adverbs are poorly characterized. The belonging of many words to the class of adverbs is established ambiguously; adverbs are characterized by a high degree of homonymy with other parts of speech. The most numerous and productive class of adverbs is on -O/-e– is consistently homonymous with word forms of another part of speech, namely the forms of short adjectives of the neuter gender (from which these adverbs are formed). The comparative degree form - the only inflectional form of the Russian adverb - is found only in adverbs in -O/-e and also coincides with the comparative form of the adjective. With adverbs on -O/-e formally the productive class of Russian predicates coincides with - O/-e, both to a positive and comparative degree ( Lying is bad,it's more fun to ride). The remaining adverbs are immutable ( So,in vain,in German,blindly) and cannot be formally separated from the unchangeable auxiliary parts of speech; many, in addition, coincide with the word forms of the inflected ones ( sitting,in the spring) or immutable (particle more, union smooth) lexemes of other parts of speech (for the distinction between adverbs and other parts of speech, see).

A similar situation is associated with the word formation of adverbs through conversion (see Word Formation / XXX) (changes in part-verbal affiliation) or univerbation (see Word Formation / XXX) (merging into a single word): funny(cf. adjective) > funny,step(tv.p. noun) > step,by that > ​​later.

3.1. Inflection

Adverbs on - O/-e, formed from qualitative adjectives (see Adjective), have only one inflectional category - degree of comparison (see Comparative degree), and only two grammes - positive ( fast) and comparative degree ( faster). Adverbs formed from qualitative adjectives, in the meaning of measure and degree (see) ( incredibly rich) do not form a comparative degree.

The comparative degree of adverbs is formed from adverbs in -O/-e using suffixes - her, -to her or -e with alternation of the previous consonant (for the last cf. Briefly speaking, higher, thinner), there is also a form of comparative degree with the prefix By- (more beautiful,higher). The comparative degree of adverbs is regularly homonymous with the comparative degree of the corresponding adjectives (as well as predicates, if we consider them an independent part of speech) and is sometimes separated into a special multifunctional part of speech - the comparative (as in [Grammarika 1980]).

(7) At the same time, he was critical of his work, more critical than other scientists... [D. Granin. Bison (1987)] – adverb

(8) He does everything good as much as he can; he still makes a little noise: it’s not for nothing that he was once a lion; but life is hard for him... heavier, than he himself suspects... [I. S. Turgenev. Fathers and Sons (1862)] – predicative

On the morphology and variability of the comparative ( more,someone else's,wider and so on.  ) see comparative degree.

Forms of adjectives on greatest(Also - shiy, Wed higher), sometimes interpreted as forms of inflectional superlative degree, sometimes as independent lexemes (see Superlative degree), correspond to adverbs in -yshe: most beautiful(cf. most beautiful). There are also superlative forms with magnifying prefixes pre-, most:

(9) And although now Bashutsky saw Sytov, so to speak, with his inner eye, the kneecaps most unpleasant whined. [YU. Davydov. Blue Tulips (1988-1989)]

Analytical comparative and superlative degrees, formed with the help of adverbs, can also be distinguished more And most accordingly, similarly to the corresponding analytical forms of adjectives:

(10) I at least agree that another language makes it possible to accept another culture deeper. [LiveJournal post with commentary (2004)]

(11) During night sleep, skin most active is being restored. ["Dasha" (2004)]

From some relative adjectives – verbal,printed,evolutionary,legislative etc. – adverbs are formed in -O/-e: verbally,in print,evolutionarily,legislatively(thus, in this respect - but not in the semantic one - they are reinterpreted as qualitative). These adverbs are not homonymous forms of adjectives and do not have degrees of comparison:

(12) Shares can only be sold at public auction, the rules of which are also required legislatively secure. ["Newspaper" (2003)]

(13) - I advise her: refuse in print from your works! [AND. Grekova. No Smiles (1975)]

3.2. Word formation

The participation of adverbs in word formation is asymmetrical: on the one hand, adverbs very rarely motivate full-valued parts of speech formed in a suffixal way (see Word Formation) (adverbial formations like why, yesterday's) [Grammatika 1980: 219], [Evtyukhin 2008: 543]. From adverbs that have changed their syntactic status, some prepositions ( near, near), particles ( more in contexts when else will he come), introductory words ( In my,Briefly speaking), high-frequency numerals ( Not)a lot of, (Not)few, but in general the role of adverbs as a source of word formation is insignificant.

3.2.3.4. Derivations from other nominal forms

This closed class includes ancient denominative adverbs ( Houses,home– from house,Down with,down - from dol).

3.2.3.5. Formations from numerals with multiplicity value

3.2.3.6. Formations from gerunds

3.2.3.7. Formations with the suffix - me

Such formations represent a rare case not of conversion, but of affixation (and with the help of a suffix characteristic exclusively of adverbs). This model is used extremely limitedly, mainly (though not only) as part of outdated figurae etymologicae of a phraseological nature: stand upright,swarm with,roar roar,lie down(cf. the ironic tone of the example from Kassil below). This also includes a synchronously unmotivated adverb flat, Old Russian formation from an adjective flat. Similar suffix in very– historically from all.

(22) Who standing up stood, the one sitting sat down Who sitting sat, that one lying down lay down Well, who lying down lay there, there was nothing left to do. [L. A. Kassil. Conduit and Schwambrania (1928-1931)]

3.2.3.8. Suffixal and prefixal derivatives of adverbs

Affixes are involved in the formation of pronominal adverbs (see) -That,-or,someday, prefixes some,neither-,Not-, characteristic of the entire system of Russian pronouns (for more details, see the article Pronoun). Prefixes are also added to the adverbial stem from-, before- with extreme semantics: from here,as far as(these same prefixes also appear in the formation of adverbs from prepositional groups: old age,until late). From non-pronominal adverbs are also formed day after tomorrow And day before yesterday(in the latter case - with a double prefix/preposition).

4. Syntax

From a syntactic point of view, an adverb is characterized primarily by the function of an adverb (see). Some spatial, temporal and quantitative adverbs (traditionally not classified as predicates) can appear as part of the predicate (in the rheme position they carry new information):

(23) “What kind of mourning,” I ask, “where is the dead man?” “In the Kuibyshev morgue,” answers Sidorovsky, “funeral.” Tomorrow. [WITH. Dovlatov. Suitcase (1986)]

(24) Golden Age of Imperialists behind; ahead– The Copper Age of the prophets and the Iron Age of barbarians, but man is capable of surviving himself and shaping the future of others at all times. ["Knowledge is Power" (2003)]

(25) I’m sitting in “from a year to three”, but here too occasionally I'm stopping by. [Our Children: Teenagers (2004)] - theme

(26) The Hero now looked into his institute rarely. [M. Stockings. Primus (2002)] – rhema

Being an unchangeable (except for the degree of comparison) part of speech, the adverb is not controlled by the words on which it depends syntactically; in Russian studies this type of connection is traditionally called adjacency [Grammatika 1980(2): 21]. Some adverbs control modifiable parts of speech, for example, the adverb of purpose out of spite has an actant - an object of negative influence, which is controlled in the dative case:

(27) In spite of a future cold he sat down on the sled and decided that he would feast: he chewed a frozen slice of bread and drank ice-cold water from a can. [ABOUT. Pavlov. Karaganda nineties, or the Tale of the last days (2001)]

When replacing a verb with a verbal noun, adverbs that have correlative adjectives are transformed into adjectives, and the remaining adverbs receive a defining function: beautiful singing - beautiful singing,go tomorrow - tomorrow's trip;move backwards - move backwards. Variation of these models is possible: summer vacation - summer vacation. See Nominalization for details.

From this point of view, the role of adverbs is similar to the role of negations (see Negation), which can also be general (with a scope equal to the entire clause: Didn’t shoot the unfortunate ones in the dungeons) and private ( No,It's not you that I love so passionately).

5.2. Variable and permanent scope

The scope of a number of adverbs (for example, prudently,frivolously) can be a variable (“floating”) and relate to both individual elements of the situation and the situation as a whole.

For some adverbs, the scope of action is predetermined by the semantics of the predicate, for example, the adverb quiet is combined only with predicates that describe a situation that may be accompanied by a sound, and the adverb at night - a situation localized in time [Filipenko 2003].

5.3. Semantic classes

The following semantic classes of adverbs will be discussed below:

In the school tradition, adverbs are divided into attributive and adverbial. Definitive adverbs include qualitative (characterization or assessment of an action and attribute: sad,scary,fast,Right), quantitative ( a lot of,few,triple,six of us), image and method of action ( step,mixed up,idle,for sure). Adverbial adverbs include adverbs of place, time, reason and purpose.

5.3.1. Adverbs of manner and manner of action

Adverbs of method and manner of action indicate the nature of the situation; prototypical pronominal adverb – How(in school grammar there is a “question” to which these adverbs “answer”). This class includes adverbs -O/-e from qualitative adjectives. This is the largest category of adverbs - about 5.5. thousand of those taken into account in [Evtyukhin 2008: 559] 6 thousand lexemes.

This class is heterogeneous [Filipenko 2003: 30], it includes:

• adverbs of emotion ( funny);
• parametric adverbs indicating a quantitatively expressible attribute ( slowly);
• adverbs of external evaluation ( Fine,not fair);
• so-called comparative-likening, indicating similarity with a situation typical for a certain class of objects ( humanly);
• adverbs of quantitative characteristics of the participants in the situation - singularity and distributivity ( together, together,apart and so on.  ), among which are adverbs formed from collective numerals ( three of us,five of us); see also Numeral.

For adverbs of this class, the adverbial function is primary; As a secondary function, the definition function is common for verbal nouns and in some special cases (see).

5.3.2. Adverbs of measure and degree

Adverbs of measure and degree characterize the intensity of the manifestation of a characteristic, in the prototypical case indicated by an adjective or other adverb: very talented,extremely frankly,too hasty,too detailed. There is a class of adverbs of multiplicity formed from collective numerals: doubled,three times,a hundred times(s); see also Numeral.

Adverbs of measure and degree are also combined with verbs containing a measurable (gradable) component in their semantics: I was in a hurry(=‘acted quickly’), loved it very much(=‘had a strong feeling’), but *walked very well;lightly touched(=‘made incomplete contact’), but *sat slightly.

Metaphorically, in the function of adverbs of measure and degree (as synonyms of the prototypical Very) adverbs of manner are widely used: exceptionally rare, deeply educated, dead drunk, negligible, ridiculously meager and so on.  Expressive synonymy of intensifiers is a typological universal.

(31) And people often cheat him, taking advantage of Kirsan’s strange manner of spending every penny he gets, and simply stealing from those around him in black! [A. Tarasov. Millionaire (2004)]

The compatibility of adverbs of measure and degree with different degrees of comparison is not the same. Some adverbs of measure and degree are used only with adverbs and adjectives of positive degree: Very,scary,exclusively; others - only with comparatives, and their semantics includes the corresponding element: much,much; third - with both those and others: slightly,A little,strongly.

We especially note the compatibility of adverbs of measure and degree with comparative degree in By-. In modern language, such comparatives modify only adverbs of the third type: much better, a little stronger.

(32) The young woman separately and those two people much older, - he is an economist, she is a historian, both with extensive experience. [L. Petrushevskaya. Find me, dream (1998-1999)]

In the 19th century, adverbs of the second (“comparative only”) type also appeared in this position: much more, twice as high:

(33) Pelageya, give me a glass of punch, yes much stronger. [A. I. Herzen. Who is guilty? (1841-1846)]

(34) He will have his own steamboat, “Launcher”, twice as clean and more of this vessel. [P.  D. Boborykin. Vasily Terkin (1892)]

5.3.3. Adverbs of cause and purpose

Adverbs of cause and purpose include adverbs expressing conditionality; prototypical pronominal adverbs – Why And For what. Usually Why is interpreted as an adverb of reason, and For what– as an adverb of purpose; however, in certain contexts they are interchangeable, and in general such formations in Slavic languages ​​are semantically unstable (cf. Polish. dlaczego'why and po co'For what'):

(35) But then For what replace the Russian word “information” with the foreign word “information”? Since the recipients of messages can be not only people, but also technical devices, the question is, can the latter perceive the information contained in the messages? And if not, then Why? ["Information Technology" (2004)]

Etymologically, they go back, as a rule, to prepositional-case combinations (see), where the preposition (which has become a prefix) means the direction of the cause-and-effect relationship ( With– reason, on- goal), and the nominal root - cause, cf. d-drunk,s-easy,out of spite,on display and so on.  These fused phraseological units are characterized by disapproving (pejorative) semantics (cf., however, for future use); in the language they are few in number (and there are more pronominal ones than significant ones), and in texts the significant adverbs of cause and purpose are of low frequency. Conditionality (consequence, concession, etc.) is much more often expressed by detailed adverbial phrases.

5.3.4. Adverbs of place and direction

Adverbs of place mean the static location of an object within a landmark: above,Houses,everywhere; prototypical pronominal adverb – Where.

Adverbs of direction, unlike adverbs of place, mean the dynamic movement of an object towards or away from a landmark: home,back,here,away,from afar,from here; prototypical pronominal adverbs – Where,where.

Adverbs of spatial limit are rarely used and are represented by archaic or colloquial words: hitherto,as far as,how long(they also have a temporary interpretation).

Russian spatial adverbs are characterized by the adverb of several series, conveying different types and shades of spatial orientation, and the semantics is largely lexicalized and is not always derived from the meaning of the prefix and root: up – up – up(within the upper part of something) – above(on something, outside the top of the landmark, “where”; ablative meaning, “from where”) – upstairs – on top(about “overlapping”, cf. over barriers),forward(direction to goal) – anteriorly(general direction) - ahead(about location) – front(static position).

Adverbs anteriorly, posteriorly are special terms of anatomy and biology and are recorded in the Corpus starting with the works of I. M. Sechenov (1863):

(36) Curvatures in the cervical and lumbar spine indicate lordosis (curvature anteriorly), in the thoracic region - about kyphosis (bending from behind). [L. Pirogov. Back pain: what is it and how to deal with it? (2003)]

5.3.5. Adverbs of time

Adverbs of this group mean the localization of a situation in time. The corresponding pronominal adverb is When. This group includes, in particular, adverbs Now,Now,earlier,late,early, (after)Tomorrow,Today, adverbs of time ( instantly,straightaway), target date ( for a long time). Among the adverbs of time, as well as among the adverbs of place, adverbs of initial limit stand out (answering the question since when? – for a long time,childhood) and final limit ( How long? – before dark,to this day). These two subtypes are somewhat archaic and are replaced in modern speech by phrases ( still- however, classifying this stable phraseological unit, written separately, as an adverb is also quite possible; from a long time ago,since childhood). Even more archaic are the corresponding pronominal adverbs - polysemous how long,breakaway(which also have spatial semantics, see).

Adverbs of duration measure are distinguished ( for a long time,A little) and multiplicity ( often,rarely,repeatedly, including adverbs from adjectives to hedgehog-, By- – daily,per month, from numerals to -wait – twice,three times,many times). Adverbs of measure of duration and frequency are semantically close to adverbs of measure and degree (see).

5.3.6. Pronominal adverbs

From a semantic point of view, a significant subclass of adverbs has the properties of service vocabulary [Filipenko 2003: 6–7] - these are the so-called pronominal adverbs, the semantics of which contains an indication of the current situation (deixis), a component of uncertainty or a quantifier meaning (see Pronoun). In many interpretations, pronominal adverbs are not identified as a special part of speech. This grammar takes a dual approach to them: they are treated both in the section on pronouns and in the section on adverbs.

Adverbs, especially purpose and reason (see), as well as time (see), place and direction (see), are characterized by a large proportion of pronominal adverbs ( for some reason,for any reason, building you are,Now), both in the number of lexemes and in frequency. This is due to the fact that free phrases have a much wider range of possibilities for expressing circumstances than single-word phraseological adverbs that do not accept new dependent words (cf. Houses – At work,visiting friends,on the street,on Tverskaya street;yesterday - last Friday,before leaving and so on.  ) [Evtyukhin 2008: 567].

From a morphological and semantic point of view, adverbs are combined into several rows associated with the general system of pronouns-nouns, adjectives and numerals (see Pronoun); pronominal with quantitative semantics ( How many,so many,only so much etc.) are not included in the table:

Table 1. Series of pronominal adverbs

	modus operandi	place	direction to landmark	direction from landmark	time	target	Preason
near deixis indexes	(this way, that way)	here			now, now
far deixis indexes
interrogative-relative
universal		everywhere, everywhere	everywhere, everywhere	from everywhere
onegative				out of nowhere
(negative predicates)				out of nowhere
uncertain	something/something/either/anything	something/something/either/anything	something/something/either/anything	(something rarely)/something/either/anything	something/something/anything	either/either	either/either

6. Statistics

Below are separate statistics on non-pronominal and pronominal adverbs in texts with and without homonymy removal. Then statistics are given on the semantic classes of adverbs identified in the semantic markup of the Corpus, as well as on the word-formation type (nominal, verbal, adjectival).

Table 2. Synchronic statistics of adverbs

	Main building		Subcorpus with homonymy removed
Not
pronominal adverbs (% of all words)
Total
% pronominal
Place
Direction
Distance
Time
Speed
Quantity
Grade
Degree
named
verbal
adjective

The high degree of homonymy characteristic of adverbs determines a significant difference in the frequency of this part of speech in the Corpus with and without homonymy removed. In the Corpus with unsolved homonymy, this frequency is almost twice as high – 7.67% – than in the Corpus with removed homonymy (4.18%). These data were obtained on the basis of written texts (spelling standards vary together And together, in a simple way And in simple terms); Without taking into account spelling, homonymy in spoken speech should be even much higher. Thus, all further calculations in the Corpus, taking into account the unsolved homonymy, actually also cover predicates and short forms of adjectives and participles in -O/-e, and particles and conjunctions with which pronominal adverbs are homonymous. At the same time, the ratio of pronominal and non-pronominal adverbs in the Corpus with removed homonymy compared to the Corpus with removed homonymy is almost the same, however, there are significant differences in the semantic and word-forming classes of adverbs. Thus, the relative frequencies of most basic semantic classes are higher (sometimes several times, as for adverbs of direction and time). The basic unmarked class - adverbs of manner of action, not included in the semantic markup of the Corpus - is more characterized by homonymy, since its bulk consists of adverbs in - O/-e. When moving to lifted homonymy, only adverbs of quantity significantly reduce their frequency from other classes - this is due to the fact that for words few,a lot of,How many the more typical function of the numeral ( get little money) or predicative ( not enough money) than adverbs ( work a little).

In general, the data from the Subcorpus with homonymy removed give the following picture. Adverbs are the lowest frequency significant part of speech. The percentage of pronominal adverbs in relation to full-valued adverbs is exceptionally high (a third, which is much higher than the percentage for other parts of speech - see Pronouns). The most frequent semantic classes, not counting the unmarked class of adverbs of manner of action, are adverbs of time, assessment, degree, place and direction. More than half of adverbial usages are motivated by adjectives; the other two full-valued parts of speech (noun and verb) are subject to adverbialization much worse (it is worth considering that adverbs from nouns like in the spring are absent in the Corpus markings and the corresponding forms are recognized as substantive).

Further comparisons are given with the same value of the “removed homonymy” parameter.

Table 3. Adverbs in the Newspaper and Oral Corps

	Newspaper building		Oral Corpus
adverbs (% of all words)
pronominal adverbs (% of all words)
Total
% pronominal
adverb classes (% of all adverbs)
Places
Directions
Distances
Time
Speed
Quantity
Grade
Degree
word formation (% of all adverbs)
named
verbal
adjective

Both the Newspaper Corpus and the Oral Corpus present texts only with unsolved homonymy. From these data it is clear that in journalistic speech adverbs are slightly less frequent than in the Main Corpus as a whole, and their pronominal status is less characteristic. From a semantic point of view, adverbs of time and quantity, which are essential for reporting news information, exceed the average; the remaining semantic classes are slightly less frequent than in the Main Corpus as a whole. The Oral Corpus provides completely different data, demonstrating a statistically significant sharp difference between oral speech and written speech. Adverbs in general are almost twice as frequent as in the Newspaper Corpus, and among them the proportion of pronominal adverbs is 10% higher, which reflects the role of deixis in oral speech. With the growth of pronominal adverbs, the percentage of all three classes of derived adverbs as a whole decreases accordingly. The differences in semantic classes are also interesting: more than twice as frequent as adverbs of place ( here,there,Where), used for spatial reference in oral discourse, adverbs of degree, quantity and distance are significantly less frequent; quantification of phenomena plays a significantly larger role in written speech.

Table 4. Diachronic statistics of adverbs

	XVIII–XIX		1900–1950		1950–2005
adverbs (% of all words)
pronominal adverbs (% of all words)
Total
% pronominal
adverb classes (% of all adverbs)
Places
Directions
Distances
Time
Speed
Quantity
Grade
Degree
word formation (% of all adverbs)
named
verbal
adjective

The diachronic table (a count that includes texts with removed homonymy, but most with unsolved homonymy) shows that there have been no significant changes in the statistical indicators of Russian dialects over the course of 300 years. Most of the observed differences are within 1%, that is, statistically insignificant. Other changes also go beyond this threshold only to a small extent. In the 20th century, the percentage of adjectival adverbs increased slightly - the productivity of the class of adverbs increased by -O/-e(see also above, in, about the decrease within this class in the productivity of adverbs from relative adjectives, characteristic of the 18th century). The frequency of pronominal adverbs has decreased. From a semantic point of view, one can note an increase in the frequency of adverbs of evaluation.

Bibliography

• Grammar 1953 – Grammar of the modern Russian literary language. M. 1952.
• Grammar 1980 – Shvedova N.Yu. (Ed.) Russian grammar. M.: Science. 1980.
• Durnovo N.N. Repeated course of Russian grammar. M.–L. 1929.
• Zaliznyak A.A. Grammar dictionary of the Russian language. M. 1967.
• Isachenko A.V. Morphology of the Russian language in comparison with Slovak. Bratislava. 1965.
• Lyashevskaya O.N., Sharov S.A. Frequency dictionary of modern Russian language. M. 2009.
• Yanko T.E. Circumstances of time in the communicative structure of a sentence // Logical analysis of language: Language and time. M. 1997.
• Dahl O. The Growth and Maintenance of Linguistic Complexity. Amsterdam. 2004.

Main literature

• Vasilyeva N.V. Adverb // Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. M. 1990.
• Galkina-Fedoruk E.M. Adverbs in modern Russian language. M. 1939.
• Evtyukhin V.B. Adverbs // Morphology of the modern Russian language. SPb. 2008.
• Prokopovich N.N. Combinations of adverbs with adjectives in modern Russian. M. 1962.
• Filipenko M.V. Semantics of adverbs and adverbial expressions. M. 2003.
• Auwera van der J., Ó Baoill D. (Eds.) Adverbial Constructions in the Languages ​​of Europe. Berlin–New York. 1998.
• Bartsch R. The Grammar of Adverbials. Amsterdam. 1976.
• Cinque G. Adverbs and functional heads – a cross-linguistic perspective. Oxford. 1999.

Adverb– an independent unchangeable part of speech that denotes a sign of action (breathesmooth, speak in English), sign ( Very Beautiful, incrediblehigh), sometimes an object (eggsoft-boiled, window wide open).

Syntax function

As part of a sentence, an adverb most often plays the role of circumstances (Boring stay home). Somewhat less often it can be part of a compound nominal predicate (You'll have to go home on foot).

Degrees of comparison of qualitative adverbs

Unlike other significant parts of speech, most adverbs do not change in any way. And only qualitative adverbs, i.e. those formed from qualitative adjectives and ending in -o and -a, have degrees of comparison. They are formed according to the same rules as degrees of comparison of adjectives:

often - more often - most often;

hot - hotter - hottest.

Such adverbs create certain difficulties when studying the grammar of the Russian language, since they are homonymous with adjectives in the form of the comparative degree, and sometimes they can be difficult to distinguish.

When determining the part of speech, in this case, you should pay attention to the function that the desired word performs in a phrase or sentence.

Everest higher than Elbrus. - adjective.

Planes fly higher than birds. – adverb.

Classification

Adverbs are divided into 2 classes according to what they do in a sentence functions:

- significant– those who name the sign ( loud, unbearable);

- pronominal– those that only indicate a sign, but do not name it ( then where). Adverbs of this type, in turn, have the same classification as pronouns: demonstrative ( there, from there); interrogative ( why, when, how), interrogative-relative ( everywhere, at all) etc.

Adverbs are also divided into groups depending on their values:

- course of action or quality– answer the questions: how? how? ( fun, slowly);

- measures and degrees or quantitative– how much? to what extent? ( twice, completely, barely);

- places- Where? Where? where? ( nearby, left, upstairs);

- time- When? how long? ( early, in the fall, at first);

- goals- For what? For what? ( necessary, on purpose);

- causes- Why? from what? ( in a hurry, foolishly).

Some adverbs can play the role of a predicate in impersonal sentences. Some researchers classify them as a special class - predicative adverbs.(In the mountains Cold. She was sad.)

Spelling features

Another distinctive feature of adverbs is that they are formed as a result of a transition from one part of speech to another, and often from a whole frozen phrase of a noun, adjective or pronoun in some form with a preposition or particle ( towards, In my, hugging, scattered). It is this unusual origin of adverbs from a combination of words that creates difficulties in determining the spelling: together, separately or through a hyphen.

Despite the fact that certain rules have developed in the language (for example, adverbs formed from an adjective with a preposition are written together ( scattered), and those formed with the help of particles are separated by a hyphen ( somehow)), there are many exceptions, that is, words whose spelling is determined not by rules, but by tradition ( openly, exactly the same and etc.)

Adverbs are an important part of the Russian language. They make our speech more precise, more expressive, and help us form succinct, “voluminous” statements.

An adverb is an independent part of speech that does not change under any circumstances. There are several characteristic features of an adverb, each of which is described in detail in this article with examples. In addition, the grammatical features of the adverb and its syntactic role in the sentence are described here.

Adverb– an independent unchangeable part of speech, which means a sign and answers the questions: How? Where? Where? When? Where? How many? and others.

Depending on what part of speech the adverb belongs to, it can mean:

• Sign of action - an adverb adjoins a verb or gerund (learn by heart, read attentively, high putting, saying quiet) ;
• Attribute of an object - adjacent to a noun (path directly, at all child, dress inside out) ;
• A sign of another sign – adjoins an adjective, adverb, participle (enough fast, amazing Beautiful, Very Fine, doubled more, purchased yesterday made carefully) .

What do adverbs mean?

General meaning of the adverb– non-processual sign (that is, a sign that does not change over time). Highlight circumstances And definitive ranks of adverbs by meaning.

Table Examples of adverbs by meaning

Adverb categories		Adverb questions	Examples of adverbs
Circumstantial	Time	When? How long? Since when? How long?	in the morning, recently, always
	Places	Where? Where? Where?	at home, right, above
	Goals	For what? For what purpose? For what?	on purpose, specially, out of spite
	Causes	From what? Why?	involuntarily, rashly, blindly
Definitive	Quality	How?	fun, bold, fast
	Method and mode of action	How?	reverently, in a whisper, together
	Measures and degrees	How many? At what time? How long? To what extent?	little, three times, too much

Grammatical features of the adverb

An adverb in the Russian language is not inflected or conjugated (it does not change according to gender, number, or case, like other independent parts of speech). A constant morphological feature of adverbs is rank by meaning.

Adverbs formed from qualitative adjectives have comparative and superlative degrees of comparison: bad - worse - worst of all, loudly - less loudly - loudest of all, boldly - more boldly - boldest of all.

TOP 5 articleswho are reading along with this

Syntactic role of the adverb

In a sentence, an adverb is usually used as an adverb (Boy Fine knows the topic). Less likely to act as an inconsistent definition (Mom cooked an egg soft-boiled. We had a running competition race) .

An adverb is a part of speech that denotes a characteristic of an action, a characteristic of an object, or a characteristic of another characteristic. Answers the question how? Which? which? which? in what degree? to what extent?
Examples of word parts of speech adverb: firmly, up, in Russian, step, too.

Morphological characteristics

Adverbs denote the following characteristics:

• Sign of action- adverbs are attached to a verb or gerund and answer the question how? Examples: live (how?) together, walk (how?) quickly.
• Item attribute- join nouns and answer the question which? which? which? Examples: walk (what?) on foot, read (what?) out loud, coffee (what?) strong.
• Sign of another sign- join an adjective, participle or other adverb and answer questions to what extent? to what extent? How? Examples: a very controversial issue, a very tall tree, quite good news, I (to what extent?) am a little sad, walking (how?) on foot.
• Indicates a sign of action(but do not name the sign of action) - used to connect sentences. Examples: there, here, from there, somewhere, etc.

According to their meaning, adverbs are divided into groups:

• Adverbs of manner - answer the questions how? how? (quickly, well, in a friendly way, suddenly, etc.);
• Adverbs of time - answer the questions when? since when? How long? how long? (today, now, a long time ago, in winter, then, in the evening, etc.);
• Adverbs of place - answer the questions where? Where? where? (far, everywhere, near, above, home, etc.);
• Adverbs of reason - answer the question why? (rashly, blindly, involuntarily);
• Adverbs of purpose - answer the question why? (on purpose, out of spite);
• Adverbs of measure and degree - answer the questions how many? at what time? in what degree? to what extent? (very, in two, in half, very, two, completely, etc.).

Adverbs indicating a sign of action are divided into groups:

• Demonstratives - here, there, there, then;
• Indefinite - somewhere, somewhere, somewhere, somehow;
• Interrogatives - where, where, when, why, how, why;
• Negative - nowhere, nowhere, nowhere, never.

The adverb part of speech does not change: it is not inflected or conjugated.

Degrees of comparison

Adverbs formed from qualitative adjectives and ending in -о or -е have two degrees of comparison: comparative and superlative. Comparative degree - denotes the attribute of an object in comparison with the attribute of another object. The comparative degree has a simple and a compound form. The simple form is formed using the suffixes -ee/-ee/-e/-she (high - higher, strongly - stronger, early - earlier). The compound form is formed by connecting an adverb with the words more and less (in more detail, in less detail). Superlative degree - usually has a compound form, formed in conjunction with the adverb and pronoun of all (fastest of all, best of all).

Examples of adverbs

By value

It’s good to wander through the grass alone in this moonlit autumn (adverb of action).
Now the sky looked like a troubled sea (adverb of time).
To the left and right of the boat, some buildings rose out of the black water (adverb of place).
I came across a windbreak (adverb of reason) blindly.

By degree of comparison

We decided to meet less often (simple comparative form).
I was asked to do the job more carefully (compound comparative form).
My friend runs the fastest at school (superlative).

Syntactic role

In a sentence, adverbs act as adverbs, less often - as definitions and predicates.
A song could be heard from afar. Adverb from afar - an adverb with the question from where?
Night solemnly descends to the earth. Adverb solemnly - adverb with the question how?
The ships arrive before dark. Adverb before dawn - adverb with the question when?
Soft-boiled egg . Adverb soft-boiled - definition with the question what?
It is cold outside . The adverb cool is a predicate with the question what?
I'm cold . The adverb coldly is a predicate with the question how?