In the music of the 17th century. In Western Europe, directions appeared that were, of course, new for their time. This is Baroque and Classicism. The styles were new later, which carried within them something that had not existed before, namely the triumph of the idea of ​​anthropocentrism over the idea of ​​geocentrism, which dominated in the Middle Ages. Baroque, that is, a strange ornate style, was dominant for almost 200 years.

Unlike the Renaissance, where man was a single center, the object of attention of the Baroque was the peculiarities of the relationship between the individual and the surrounding world. Pathos, movement, scale, pomp and decorativeness, synthization - these are the main characteristics of this style.

Giovanni Batista Pergolesi

Baroque in music is, first of all, opera, a combination of the arts of music and drama, in all its pomp and beauty. The birthplace of opera was Italy (Florence). The first surviving work is the opera “Eurydice” (J. Peri, O. Rinnuccini, 1600), defined by the authors as drama per musica, which became an example of the opera genre that laid the foundations of a new style.

This was the beginning of the formation of “serious opera”, which was later divided into lyrical and comic opera. The lyric dominates in France, and the comic in Italy (G. Pergolesi). But opera was not the only genre of musical art of that time.

Arcangelo Corelli

Musical and dramatic genres such as cantatas, oratorios, requiems, etc. are firmly established in the art of music. They were based on stories from the Bible and were necessary for execution on church holidays.

Oratorios have come a long way in development: from polyphony, where there were up to 12 voices, to homophony, where there was only one voice, from external showiness to deep drama. The oratorio reached its greatest flowering in the works of Handel and Bach.

Antonio Vivaldi

There was a search for new means of expression in the field of instrumental music. Performing schools were formed: organ, violin, and keyboard. Great performers and composers who created complex fugues, fantasies, toccatas, passacaglia, chaconnes were G. Frescobaldi (Italy), D. Buxtehude, G. F. Handel, J. S. Bach (Germany).

Then it was time for the violin. Dynasties of craftsmen appeared who made this magnificent instrument: Amati, Stradivari, Guarneri. The violin parts of Corelli, Vivaldi, and Tartini were performed superbly.

Antonio Stradivari

The development of music of this time is closely related to the spiritual needs of the era. The Enlightenment played a decisive role, with its concept of the possibility of improving the human soul through upbringing and education. The greatest thinkers of the era - Goethe, Schiller, Lessing, Kant, Hegel, Voltaire, Montesquieu, all of them had a direct influence on the development of musical art.

All this was reflected in the works of the great composers of Viennese classical school: K.V. Gluck, J. Haydn, W.A. Mozart and L. Beethoven, in whose music humor was combined with deep tragedy human life. The expectation of revolutionary change, as a dominant inevitability, became the ideological basis musical development that era.

Nicolo Paganini playing the Guarneri violin

The revolution, like some kind of bright future, became a beacon for artists of that time for a long period. Who knew that it would all end in a guillotine and streams of blood? Who knew that the regime of the feudal aristocracy would be replaced by the regime of the plutocratic aristocracy, under which the power of money would become unlimited.

And the end will come of the prosperous classics, with their cult of harmony of man, society, and nature. Romanticism, in which the imperfect soul of man becomes an ideal, will replace classicism. And a brave new world will come...

Classical composers are known all over the world. Every name musical genius- a unique individuality in the history of culture.

What is classical music

Classical music is enchanting melodies created by talented authors who are rightly called classical composers. Their works are unique and will always be in demand by performers and listeners. Classical, on the one hand, is usually called strict, deeply meaningful music that is not related to the following genres: rock, jazz, folk, pop, chanson, etc. On the other hand, in the historical development of music there is a period of the late XIII - early XX centuries, called classicism.

Classical themes are distinguished by sublime intonation, sophistication, variety of shades and harmony. They have a positive effect on the emotional worldview of adults and children.

Stages of development of classical music. Their brief description and main representatives

In the history of development classical music stages can be distinguished:

• Renaissance or Renaissance - early 14th - last quarter of the 16th century. In Spain and England, the Renaissance period lasted until the beginning of the 17th century.
• Baroque - replaced the Renaissance and lasted until the beginning of the 18th century. The center of the style was Spain.
• Classicism - a period of development European culture from the beginning of the 18th to the beginning of the 19th century.
• Romanticism is a direction opposite to classicism. Lasted until the mid-19th century.
• Classics of the 20th century - modern era.

Brief description and main representatives of cultural periods

1. Renaissance - a long period development of all areas of culture. - Thomas Tallis, Giovanni da Palestina, T. L. de Victoria composed and left immortal creations for posterity.

2. Baroque - in this era new musical forms appeared: polyphony, opera. It was during this period that they created their own famous creations Bach, Handel, Vivaldi. Bach's fugues are built in accordance with the requirements of classicism: mandatory adherence to the canons.

3. Classicism. who created their immortal creations in the era of classicism: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven. The sonata form appears and the composition of the orchestra increases. and Haydn differ from the ponderous works of Bach in the simple construction and elegance of the melodies. It was still a classic, a striving for perfection. Beethoven's works are the edge of contact between the romantic and classic styles. In the music of L. van Beethoven there is more sensuality and ardor than rational canon. Such important genres as symphony, sonata, suite, and opera emerged. Beethoven gave rise to the Romantic period.

4. Romanticism. Musical works are characterized by color and drama. Various song genres are being formed, for example, ballads. Piano works by Liszt and Chopin received recognition. The traditions of romanticism were inherited by Tchaikovsky, Wagner, and Schubert.

5. Classics of the 20th century - characterized by the authors’ desire for innovation in melodies; the terms aleatorics, atonalism arose. Works by Stravinsky, Rachmaninov, Glass are classified in the classical format.

Russian classical composers

Tchaikovsky P.I. - Russian composer, musical critic, public figure, teacher, conductor. His compositions are the most performed. They are sincere, easily perceived, reflect the poetic originality of the Russian soul, scenic paintings Russian nature. The composer created 6 ballets, 10 operas, more than a hundred romances, 6 symphonies. World famous ballet " Swan Lake", opera "Eugene Onegin", "Children's Album".

Rachmaninov S.V. - the works of the outstanding composer are emotional and cheerful, and some are dramatic in content. Their genres are varied: from small plays to concerts and operas. The author’s generally recognized works: the operas “The Miserly Knight”, “Aleko” based on Pushkin’s poem “The Gypsies”, “Francesca da Rimini” based on a plot borrowed from Dante’s “Divine Comedy”, the poem “The Bells”; suite “Symphonic Dances”; piano concerts; vocalise for voice with piano accompaniment.

Borodin A.P. was a composer, teacher, chemist, and doctor. The most significant creation is the opera “Prince Igor” based on the historical work “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, which the author wrote for almost 18 years. During his lifetime, Borodin did not have time to finish it; after his death, the opera was completed by A. Glazunov and N. Rimsky-Korsakov. Great composer is the founder of classical quartets and symphonies in Russia. The “Bogatyr” Symphony is considered the crown of world and Russian national-heroic symphony. The instrumental chamber quartets, the First and Second Quartets, were recognized as outstanding. One of the first to introduce heroic figures from ancient Russian literature into romances.

Great musicians

Mussorgsky M.P., about whom one can say, is a great realist composer, a brave innovator who touches on acute social problems, a magnificent pianist and an excellent vocalist. The most significant musical works are the operas “Boris Godunov” based on the dramatic work of A.S. Pushkin and “Khovanshchina” - folk musical drama, the main character of these operas is the rebel people from different social strata; creative cycle “Pictures at an Exhibition”, inspired by the works of Hartmann.

Glinka M.I. - famous Russian composer, founder of the classical movement in Russian musical culture. He completed the procedure for creating a school of Russian composers, based on the value of folk and professional music. The master’s works are imbued with love for the Fatherland and reflect the ideological orientation of the people of that historical era. The world-famous folk drama “Ivan Susanin” and the opera-fairy tale “Ruslan and Lyudmila” have become new trends in Russian opera. Symphonic works"Kamarinskaya" and " Spanish Overture» Glinka - the foundations of Russian symphonism.

Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. is a talented Russian composer, naval officer, teacher, publicist. Two currents can be traced in his work: historical (“ The Tsar's Bride", "Pskovite") and fairy tales ("Sadko", "Snow Maiden", suite "Scheherazade"). A distinctive feature of the composer's works: originality based on classical values, homophony in harmonic construction early works. His compositions have the author's style: original orchestral solutions with unusually constructed vocal scores, which are the main ones.

Russian classical composers tried to reflect in their works the cognitive thinking and folklore characteristic of the nation.

European culture

Famous classical composers Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven lived in the capital of musical culture of that time - Vienna. Geniuses are united by masterful performance, excellent compositional solutions, and the use of different musical styles: from folk tunes to polyphonic developments musical themes. Great classics are characterized by comprehensive creative mental activity, competence, and clarity in the construction of musical forms. In their works, intellect and emotions, tragic and comic components, ease and prudence are organically linked together.

Beethoven and Haydn gravitated towards instrumental compositions, Mozart masterfully succeeded in both operatic and orchestral compositions. Beethoven was an unsurpassed creator of heroic works, Haydn appreciated and successfully used humor and folk genre types in his work, Mozart was a universal composer.

Mozart is the creator of the sonata instrumental form. Beethoven improved it and brought it to unsurpassed heights. The period of the Viennese classics became a period of quartet heyday. Haydn, followed by Beethoven and Mozart, made a significant contribution to the development of this genre.

Italian masters

Giuseppe Verdi - an outstanding musician of the 19th century, developed traditional Italian opera. He had impeccable skill. The culmination of it composer activity operatic works “Il Trovatore”, “La Traviata”, “Othello”, “Aida” were created.

Niccolo Paganini - born in Nice, one of the most musically gifted personalities of the 18th and 19th centuries. He was a master of the violin. He composed caprices, sonatas, quartets for violin, guitar, viola and cello. He wrote concertos for violin and orchestra.

Gioachino Rossini - worked in the 19th century. Author of sacred and chamber music, composed 39 operas. Outstanding works are “The Barber of Seville”, “Othello”, “Cinderella”, “The Thieving Magpie”, “Semiramis”.

Antonio Vivaldi is one of the greatest representatives of violin art of the 18th century. He gained fame thanks to his most famous work - 4 violin concertos "The Four Seasons". Lived an amazingly fruitful life creative life, composed 90 operas.

Famous Italian classical composers left an eternal musical legacy. Their cantatas, sonatas, serenades, symphonies, operas will bring pleasure to more than one generation.

Peculiarities of a child’s perception of music

Listening to good music has a positive effect on the psycho-emotional development of a child, according to child psychologists. Good music introduces you to art and shapes aesthetic taste, teachers say.

Many famous creations were created by classical composers for children, taking into account their psychology, perception and specifics of age, i.e. for listening, while others composed various plays for little performers that were easily perceived by ear and technically accessible to them.

“Children's Album” by P.I. Tchaikovsky. for little pianists. This album is a dedication to my nephew who loved music and was a very gifted child. The collection contains more than 20 plays, some of them based on folklore material: Neapolitan motifs, Russian dance, Tyrolean and French melodies. Collection “Children's Songs” by P.I. Tchaikovsky. designed for auditory perception by children. Songs of an optimistic mood about spring, birds, a blooming garden (“My Garden”), about compassion for Christ and God (“Christ had a garden as a child”).

Children's classics

Many classical composers worked for children, the list of whose works is very diverse.

Prokofiev S.S. "Peter and the Wolf" - symphonic tale for children. Thanks to this fairy tale, children get acquainted with musical instruments symphony orchestra. The text of the fairy tale was written by Prokofiev himself.

Schumann R. “Children's Scenes” are short musical stories with a simple plot, written for adult performers, memories of childhood.

Debussy's piano cycle "Children's Corner".

Ravel M. “Mother Goose” based on the fairy tales of C. Perrault.

Bartok B. “First steps at the piano.”

Cycles for children Gavrilova S. “For the little ones”; "Heroes of Fairy Tales"; “Guys about animals.”

Shostakovich D. “Album of piano pieces for children.”

Bakh I.S. " Music book Anna Magdalena Bach. While teaching my children music, I created for them special plays and exercises to develop technical skills.

Haydn J. is the progenitor of the classical symphony. He created a special symphony called “Children’s”. The instruments used: a clay nightingale, a rattle, a cuckoo - give it an unusual sound, childish and playful.

Saint-Saëns K. came up with a fantasy for orchestra and 2 pianos called “Carnival of Animals”, in which musical means masterfully conveyed the cackling of chickens, the roar of a lion, the complacency of an elephant and its manner of movement, a touchingly graceful swan.

When composing compositions for children and youth, great classical composers took care of the interesting storylines of the work, the accessibility of the proposed material, taking into account the age of the performer or listener.

Music of the 17th and 18th centuries

At the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, polyphony, which dominated the music of the Renaissance, began to give way to homophony (from the Greek “homos” - “one”, “identical” and “phone” - “sound”, “voice”). Unlike polyphony, where all voices are equal, in homophonic polyphony there is only one voice, performing main topic, and the rest play the role of accompaniment (accompaniment). The accompaniment is usually a system of chords (harmonies). Hence the name of the new way of composing music - homophonic-harmonic.

Ideas about church music have changed. Now composers sought not so much to ensure that a person renounces earthly passions, but rather to reveal the complexity of his spiritual experiences. Works appeared that were written on religious texts or subjects, but were not intended for mandatory performance in church. (Such works are called spiritual, since the word “spiritual” has a broader meaning than “ecclesiastical.”) The main spiritual genres of the 17th-18th centuries. - cantata and oratorio. The importance of secular music increased: it was heard at court, in the salons of aristocrats, and in public theaters (the first such theaters were opened in the 17th century). A new type of musical art has emerged - opera.

Instrumental music is also marked by the emergence of new genres, most notably the instrumental concerto. The violin, harpsichord, and organ gradually turned into solo instruments. The music written for them provided an opportunity to demonstrate the talent of not only the composer, but also the performer. What was valued above all was virtuosity (the ability to cope with technical difficulties), which gradually became an end in itself and an artistic value for many musicians.

Composers of the 17th-18th centuries usually not only composed music, but also played instruments masterfully and practiced pedagogical activity. The artist’s well-being largely depended on the specific customer. As a rule, every serious musician sought to obtain a place either at the court of a monarch or a wealthy aristocrat (many members of the nobility had their own orchestras or opera houses) or in a temple. Moreover, most composers easily combined church music with service for a secular patron.

Oratorio and cantata

As an independent musical genre The oratorio (Italian oratorio, from the late Latin oratorium - “chapel”) began to take shape in Italy in the 16th century. Musicologists see the origins of the oratorio in liturgical drama (see the article “Theater medieval Europe") - theatrical performances telling about biblical events.

Similar actions were played out in temples - hence the name of the genre. At first, oratorios were written based on the texts of Holy Scripture, and they were intended for performance in church. In the 17th century, composers began to compose oratorios based on modern poetic texts spiritual content. The structure of the oratorio is close to opera. This major work for solo singers, choir and orchestra, with a dramatic plot. However, unlike opera, there is no stage action in the oratorio: it talks about events, but does not show them.

In Italy in the 17th century. Another genre emerged - cantata (Italian cantata, from Latin canto- “I sing”). Like the oratorio, the cantata is usually performed by soloists, chorus and orchestra, but is shorter in comparison to the oratorio. Cantatas were written on spiritual and secular texts.

Music of Italy

At the end of the 16th century in Italy there was a art style baroque (from um. barocco - “strange”, “bizarre”). This style is characterized by expressiveness, drama, entertainment, and the desire for synthesis (combination) of different types of art. These features were fully manifested in opera, which arose at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. One work combined music, poetry, drama and theatrical painting. Initially, the opera had a different name: “drama for music” (Italian: dramma per musica); the word "opera" (Italian opera - "composition") appeared only in the middle of the 17th century. The idea of ​​“drama for music” was born in Florence, in the artistic circle of the Florentine Camerata. The meetings of the circle were held in the chamber (from the Italian camera - “room”), home environment. From 1579 to 1592, enlightened music lovers, poets, and scientists gathered in the house of Count Giovanni Bardi. It was also visited by professional musicians - singers and composers Jacopo Peri (1561 - 1633) and Giulio Caccini (c. 1550-1618), theorist and composer Vincenzo Galilei (c. 1520-1591), father of the famous scientist Galileo Galilei.

The participants of the Florentine Camerata were concerned about the development of musical art. They saw its future in the combination of music and drama: the texts of such works (unlike the texts of complex choral polyphonic chants of the 16th century) would become understandable to the listener.

The members of the circle found the ideal combination of words and music in the ancient theater: poems were pronounced in a chant, every word, every syllable sounded clear. This is how the Florentine Camerata came up with the idea of ​​solo singing accompanied by an instrument - monody (from the Greek "monos" - "one" and "ode" - "song"). A new style singing began to be called recitative (from the Italian recitare - “to recite”): the music followed the text and the singing was a monotonous recitation. The musical intonations were unimpressive - the emphasis was on the clear pronunciation of words, and not on conveying the feelings of the characters.

Early Florentine operas were composed on plots from ancient mythology. The first works of the new genre that have come down to us are two operas with the same name “Eurydice” by composers Peri (1600) and Caccini (1602). They were created based on the myth of Orpheus. Singing accompanied instrumental ensemble, which consisted of a cymbal (the predecessor of the piano), lyre, lute, guitar, etc.

The heroes of the first operas were ruled by fate, and its will was proclaimed by messengers. The action opened with a prologue in which the virtues and power of art were glorified. Further performances included vocal ensembles (opera numbers where several participants sing simultaneously), a choir, and dance episodes. The musical composition was built on their alternation.

Opera began to develop rapidly, and primarily as court music. The nobility patronized the arts, and such care was explained not only by a love of beauty: the prosperity of the arts was considered an obligatory attribute of power and wealth. Large cities in Italy - Rome, Florence, Venice, Naples - have their own opera schools.

Best Features different schools- attention to poetic word(Florence), serious spiritual overtones of action (Rome), monumentality (Venice) - combined in his work by Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643). The composer was born in the Italian city of Cremona in the family of a doctor. Monteverdi developed as a musician in his youth. He wrote and performed madrigals; played the organ, viol and other instruments. Monteverdi studied composing music from famous composers of that time. In 1590, as a singer and musician, he was invited to Mantua, to the court of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga; later he headed court chapel. In 1612 Monteverdi left his service in Mantua and from 1613 settled in Venice. Largely thanks to Monteverdi, the world's first public opera house opened in Venice in 1637. There the composer headed the chapel of San Marco Cathedral. Before his death, Claudio Monteverdi took holy orders.

Having studied the work of Peri and Caccini, Monteverdi created his own works of this genre. Already in the first operas - "Orpheus" (1607) and "Ariadne" (1608) - the composer managed to convey deep and passionate feelings through musical means and create intense dramatic action. Monteverdi is the author of many operas, but only three have survived - Orpheus, The Return of Ulysses to his Homeland (1640; based on the ancient Greek epic poem Odyssey) and The Coronation of Poppea (1642).

Monteverdi's works harmoniously combine music and text. The operas are based on a monologue in which every word sounds clearly, and the music flexibly and subtly conveys shades of mood. Monologues, dialogues and choral episodes smoothly flow into each other, the action develops slowly (there are three or four acts in Monteverdi's operas), but dynamically. The composer assigned an important role to the orchestra. In Orpheus, for example, he used almost every instrument known at the time. Orchestral music not only accompanies singing, but itself tells about the events taking place on stage and the experiences of the characters. In "Orpheus" an overture (French ouverture, or Latin apertura - “opening”, “beginning”) appeared for the first time - an instrumental introduction to a major piece of music. The operas of Claudio Monteverdi had a significant influence on Venetian composers and laid the foundations of the Venetian opera school.

Monteverdi wrote not only operas, but also sacred music, religious and secular madrigals. He became the first composer who did not contrast polyphonic and homophonic methods - the choral episodes of his operas include polyphonic techniques. In Monteverdi's work, the new was combined with the old - the traditions of the Renaissance.

By the beginning of the 18th century. An opera school was established in Naples. The peculiarities of this school are increased attention to singing and the dominant role of music. It was in Naples that the vocal style of bel canto was created (Italian bel canto - “beautiful singing”). Bel Canto is famous for its extraordinary beauty of sound, melody and technical perfection. In the high register (voice range), the singing was distinguished by lightness and transparency of timbre, in the low register - velvety softness and density. The performer had to be able to reproduce many shades of voice timbre, as well as masterfully convey numerous rapid sequences of sounds superimposed on the main melody - coloratura (Italian coloratura - “decoration”). A special requirement was the evenness of the sound of the voice - breathing should not be heard in slow melodies.

In the 18th century, opera became the main form of musical art in Italy, which was facilitated by the high professional level of singers who studied at conservatories (Italian conservatorio, err Latin conserve - “I protect”) - educational institutions that trained musicians. By that time, four conservatories had been created in the centers of Italian opera art - Venice and Naples. The popularity of the genre was also enhanced by the opera houses that opened in different cities of the country, accessible to all segments of society. Italian operas were staged in theaters in major European capitals, and composers from Austria, Germany and other countries wrote operas based on Italian texts.

The achievements of Italian music in the 17th-18th centuries are significant. and in the field of instrumental genres. The composer and organist Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583-1643) did a lot for the development of organ creativity. "In church music, he laid the foundation for a new style. His compositions for the organ are detailed compositions of a fantasy (free) nature. Frescobaldi became famous for his virtuoso playing and the art of improvisation on the organ and clavier. The art of violin flourished. By that time, traditions of violin production had developed in Italy. Hereditary craftsmen of the Amati, Guarneri, Stradivari families from the city of Cremona developed the design of the violin, the methods of its manufacture, which were kept in deep secret and passed on from generation to generation. The instruments made by these masters have an amazingly beautiful, warm sound, similar to the human voice. became widespread as an ensemble and solo instrument.

The founder of the Roman violin school is Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713), one of the creators of the concerto grosso genre (um. concerto grosso - “big concert”). The concert usually involves a solo instrument (or group of instruments) and an orchestra. The “Grand Concert” was based on the alternation of solo episodes and the sound of the entire orchestra, which in the 17th century was chamber and predominantly string orchestra. With Corelli, the solos were mostly violin and cello. His concerts consisted of parts of different nature; their number was arbitrary.

One of the outstanding masters violin music- Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741). He became famous as a brilliant violin virtuoso.

His contemporaries were attracted by his dramatic style of performance, full of unexpected contrasts. Continuing the traditions of Corelli, the composer worked in the genre of " big concert"The number of works he wrote is enormous - four hundred and sixty-five concerts, forty operas, cantatas and oratorios.

When creating concerts, Vivaldi strove for bright and unusual sounds. He mixed the timbres of different instruments, often included dissonances (sharp consonances) in the music; he chose rare instruments at that time as soloists - bassoon, mandolin (considered a street instrument). Vivaldi concertos consist of three movements, with the first and last performed in fast pace, and medium is slow. Many Vivaldi concerts have a program - a title or even a literary dedication. The cycle "The Seasons" (1725) is one of the earliest examples of software orchestral music. The four concerts of this cycle - "Spring", "Summer", "Autumn", "Winter" - paint colorful pictures of nature. Vivaldi managed to convey in music the singing of birds ("Spring", first movement), thunderstorms ("Summer", third movement), and rain ("Winter", second movement). Virtuosity and technical complexity did not distract the listener, but contributed to the creation of a memorable image. Vivaldi's concert work became a vivid embodiment of the Baroque style in instrumental music.

Operaseria and operabuffa

In the 18th century such opera genres as opera seria (Italian opera seria - “serious opera”) and opera buffa (Italian opera buffa - “comic opera”) were formed. Operaseria established itself in the work of Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725), the founder and largest representative of the Neapolitan opera school. During his life he composed more than a hundred such works. For operaseria they usually chose a mythological or historical plot. It opened with an overture and consisted of completed numbers - arias, recitatives and choruses. Main role they played big arias; they usually consisted of three parts, with the third being a repetition of the first. In the arias, the heroes expressed their attitude to the events taking place.

There were several types of arias: heroic, pathetic (passionate), plaintive, etc. A specific circle was used for each expressive means: in heroic arias - decisive, inviting intonations, cheerful rhythm; in plaintive ones - short, intermittent musical phrases showing the hero’s excitement, etc. Recitatives, small fragments, served to develop the dramatic narrative, as if moving it forward. The heroes discussed plans for further action and told each other about the events that had happened. Recitatives were divided into two types: secco (from the Italian secco - “dry”) - a quick patter under the sparse chords of the harpsichord, and accompaniato (Italian assotraniato - “with accompaniment”) - an expressive recitation to the sound of an orchestra. Secco was often used to develop the action, while accompaniato was used to convey the thoughts and feelings of the hero. Choirs and vocal ensembles commented on what was happening, but did not take part in the events.

The number of acting lines depended on the type of plot and was strictly defined; the same applies to the relationships between the characters. The types of solo vocal numbers and their place in stage action have been established. Each character had its own timbre of voice: the lyrical heroes - soprano and tenor, the noble father or villain - baritone or bass, the fatal heroine - contralto.

By the middle of the 18th century. The shortcomings of the opera seria became obvious. The performance was often timed to coincide with court celebrations, so the work had to end happily, which sometimes looked implausible and unnatural. Often the texts were written in artificial, sophisticated language. Composers sometimes neglected the content and wrote music that did not correspond to the character of the sienna or the situation; a lot of cliches and unnecessary external effects appeared. The singers demonstrated their own virtuosity, without thinking about the role of the aria in the work as a whole. The operaseria began to be called a “concert in costumes.” The public did not show serious interest in the opera itself, but went to performances for the “crown” aria famous singer; During the action, spectators entered and left the hall.

Operabuffa was also formed by Neapolitan masters. The first classic example of such an opera is “The Lady's Servant” (1733) by composer Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710-1736). If in operaseria there are arias in the foreground, then in opera buffa there are spoken dialogues, alternating with vocal ensembles. Operebuffa has completely different main characters. This is usually simple people- servants, peasants. The plot was based on an entertaining intrigue with disguises, servants fooling a stupid rich owner, etc. The music required graceful lightness, and the action required swiftness.

The Italian playwright and creator of the national comedy Carlo Goldoni had a great influence on operabuffa. The most witty, lively and vibrant works of this genre were created by Neapolitan composers: Niccolo Piccinni (1728-1800) - “Cecchina, or the Good Daughter” (1760); Giovanni Paisiello (1740-1816) - “The Barber of Seville” (1782), “The Miller’s Wife” (1788); singer, violinist, harpsichordist and composer Domenico Cimarosa (1749-1801) - “The Secret Marriage” (1792).

Bowed string instruments

The predecessors of modern string instruments - violin, viola, cello and double bass - are viols. They appeared at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. and soon, thanks to their soft and gentle sound, they began to play a leading role in orchestras.

Gradually, viols were replaced by new, more advanced bowed string instruments. In the 16th-17th centuries, entire schools of masters worked on their creation. The most famous of them are dynasties violin makers, which originated in northern Italy - in the cities of Cremona and Brescia.

The founder of the Cremona school is Andrea Amati (about 1520 - about 1580). Nicolo Amati (1596-1684), his grandson, became especially famous for his art. He made the structure of the violin almost perfect, enhanced the sound of the instrument; at the same time, the softness and warmth of the timbre were preserved. The Guarneri family worked in Cremona in the 17th-18th centuries. The founder of the dynasty is Andrea Guarneri (1626-1698), a student of Nicolo Amati. The outstanding master Azuseppe Guarneri (1698-1744) developed a new model of violin, different from the Amati instrument.

The traditions of the Amati school were continued by Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737). He studied with Nicolo Amati, and in 1667 he opened his own business. Stradivari, more than other masters, managed to bring the sound of the violin closer to the timbre of the human voice.

The Magini family worked in Bresha; the best violins were created by Giovanni Magini (1580-1630 or 1632).

Highest register string bowed instrument- violin. It is followed in order of decreasing sound range by viola, cello, and double bass. The shape of the body (or resonant box) of a violin resembles the outline human body. The body has a top and a bottom deck (German Decke - “lid”), the first being made of spruce, and the second of maple. Decks serve to reflect and amplify sound. On the top there are resonator holes (in the form Latin letter f; It’s no coincidence that they are called “efs”). The neck is attached to the body; it is usually made from ebony. This is a long narrow plate over which four strings are stretched. Pegs are used to tension and tune the strings; they are also on the fingerboard.

The viola, cello and double bass are similar in structure to the violin, but larger. The viola is not very large, it is held at the shoulder. The cello is larger than the viola, and when playing, the musician sits on a chair and places the instrument on the floor, between his legs. The double bass is larger than the cello, so the performer has to stand or sit on a high stool and place the instrument in front of him. While playing, the musician moves a bow along the strings, which is a wooden cane with stretched horsehair; the string vibrates and makes a melodious sound. The quality of the sound depends on the speed of movement of the bow and the force with which it presses on the string. Using the fingers of his left hand, the performer shortens the string, pressing it in different places against the fingerboard - in this way he achieves different pitches of sound. On instruments of this type, sound can also be produced by plucking or striking the string with the wooden part of the bow. The sound of bowed strings is very expressive; the performer can add the finest nuances to the music.

The concept of “composer” first appeared in the 16th century in Italy, and since then it has been used to refer to a person who composes music.

19th century composers

In the 19th century Vienna music school represented by such an outstanding composer as Franz Peter Schubert. He continued the traditions of Romanticism and influenced an entire generation of composers. Schubert created more than 600 German romances, taking the genre to a new level.

Franz Peter Schubert

Another Austrian, Johann Strauss, became famous for his operettas and light musical forms dance character. It was he who made the waltz the most popular dance in Vienna, where balls are still held. In addition, his heritage includes polkas, quadrilles, ballets and operettas.

Johann Strauss

A prominent representative of modernism in music of the late 19th century was the German Richard Wagner. His operas have not lost their relevance and popularity to this day.

Giuseppe Verdi

Wagner can be contrasted with the majestic figure of the Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi, who remained faithful to operatic traditions and gave Italian opera a new breath.

Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky

Among the Russian composers of the 19th century, the name of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky stands out. He is characterized by a unique style that combines European symphonic traditions with Glinka's Russian heritage.

Composers of the 20th century

Sergei Vasilyevich Rahmaninov

Sergei Vasilievich Rachmaninov is rightfully considered one of the most brilliant composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His musical style was based on the traditions of romanticism and existed in parallel with avant-garde movements. It was for his individuality and lack of analogues that his work was highly appreciated by critics all over the world.

Igor Fedorovich Stravinsky

The second most famous composer of the 20th century is Igor Fedorovich Stravinsky. Russian by origin, he emigrated to France and then the USA, where he showed his talent in full force. Stravinsky is an innovator who is not afraid to experiment with rhythms and styles. His work shows the influence of Russian traditions, elements of various avant-garde movements and a unique individual style, for which he is called “Picasso in music.”

Musical culture of the late XVII– early XVIII century is significantly different from previous ones. She rises to the top not only in Russia, but also in other countries. Changes in society and cultural spheres Europe contribute to the involvement of new non-European musical phenomena, and the consumption of music products on audio media changes the attitude towards music. It is beginning to be understood as a global phenomenon, and its consumer and entertainment function is strengthening. The role is increasing popular culture and popular musical genres, they are separated from the culture of the elite, Western European musical classics and professional academic composing activities.

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Introduction

The 17th century is the beginning of a new era in music, liberated from the domination of the church, acquiring an increasing variety of genres, forms, colors, and means of expression. The most important step along this path was the emergence of opera, a secular art that inherited the ideas of the Renaissance, highlighting the beauty and expressiveness of melody, solo singing, and wealth human feelings. From the princely palaces of Florence and Rome, opera came to the first opera house in Venice in 1637. Vertex Italian opera that period - the work of Claudio Monteverdi, the creator of musical drama, where music developed in close connection with dramatic action, depicting complex and truthful characters of the characters.

The founder of the French opera school, Jean Baptiste Lully, relied on the experience of the dramatic theater.

An example of operatic art incomparable in subtlety and depth of lyrical expression left English composer Henry Purcell.

Along with the vocal genre, instrumental genres are developing. Following the organ, the king of Baroque art, came the harpsichord. The Italian D. Frescobaldi, the Germans D. Buxtehude, Handel and the greatest of all – J. S. Bach wrote for these instruments. In Italy the violin began to sound in full voice. Violin sonatas by Arcangelo Corelli, violin concertos by Antonio Vivaldi, their orchestral concerts served as models for many composers. Highest flourishing instrumental music reached in the 2nd half of the 18th century.

Musical culture also developed in Rus'. In the middle of the 17th century, new trends clearly made themselves felt in Russian musical culture, attitudes towards music and its place in life changed, new genres, forms and stylistic principles emerged.

The fact that Russian music lagged behind Western European music in the Middle Ages is indisputable. Music, like other types of artistic creativity, developed in Ancient Rus' not only slower than in Western European countries, but also in different ways. She created her own unique values, distinguished by their bright originality and originality.

Music in France in the 17th - early 18th centuries

French music experienced its powerful and brilliant, truly classical and rich post-Renaissance period for a little less than one century. In France, an entire cultural and historical era was receding into the past.

In the history of French music, the 17th century was marked by an impressive climax. This brilliant streak had a significant impact on the subsequent development of art not only in France, but also far beyond its borders.

The difficult path of historical development was thorny for the people. Bloody wars cost him enormous hardships and countless casualties. The masses languished under oppression royal power, under the burden of unbearable taxes and levies, while the feudal nobility, the official bureaucracy and the top of the clergy were drowning in unspeakable luxury. Through these contradictions of light and darkness and in spite of them, France of the 17th century created the great art of classicism, under its shadow French music grew and matured.

In the era of national upsurge and even greater national hardships, the people of France, freedom-loving and cheerful, at work in the fields and vineyards, in the forest, in city workshops and factories, in fierce battles, and finally, in the family circle at home, continued to compose and sing their songs , still, as during the Renaissance, temperamental, witty, mocking, tragic. They, as before, again reflected the life of the country in a new phase of its history, images of its people with their work, peaceful and violent, with their needs, passions and concerns, joys and sorrows.

Few songs whose authenticity has been accurately established have survived. In the collections that have come down to us from that time, published in Paris, Lyon, Rouen and other cities by publishers and amateur folklorists Bayard, Christophe, Leroy, melodies of folk origin are mixed with works of composers and professional singers - table songs, dance songs, playful songs, love songs. These songs, skillfully recreating the intonation structure of genuine folklore, often acquired very wide popularity and distribution among the people. As a result, a kind of “song amalgam” was formed, in which it seems difficult to detect the grains of authentic folklore. Sometimes they come to the rescue literary sources. Thus, the popular lyrical "Mon pere m" a donne un mari" ("My father gave me a husband") is mentioned in Paul Scarron's "Comic Novel", and the everyday "Si le Roi m" avait donne" ("If only the king would give me" ) named by Moliere. Rural round dance songs, dating back as a genre to the early Middle Ages, have been preserved in greater originality. As for the urban folklore, at one time represented in the repertoire of the Pont-Neuf singers, this repertoire was also extremely varied: it consisted of courtly arias, re-intonated in a plebeian manner, operatic excerpts (especially from the time of Lully) and only partially genuine “songs” artisans." These latter include popular ronde melodies: “En revenant des noces” (“Co wedding come back”) or “Jl nous faut des tondeurs” (“We would need to shear the sheep”) and some others, including peasant ones (widely the famous "Song of the Sower" - "Chanson de 1" aveine, usually performed in the form of a small dramatization).

Three of the greatest French composers - Lully, François Couperin Jr. and Rameau - wrote airs de cour and even considered it an honor to submit their instrumental pieces for such an adaptation, especially since verbal texts began to be commissioned from the best poets. Some of Couperin's rondos were also subtexted, including his well-known harpsichord piece "The most tender marshmallow reigns in these places" - a play distinguished by its exceptionally subtle and elegant ornamentation of melodic voices.
With the beginning of the 18th century, the air de cour genre entered into a period of amazingly rapid decline and, quite synchronously with early classicism, came to naught.

French social thought of that century was rich and diverse. It vividly reflected the struggle of classes and itself acted as a sharp ideological weapon in this struggle.

The brilliant philosopher, mathematician and natural scientist Rene Descartes, who professed a dualistic worldview, was nevertheless a brave thinker and fighter against theological scholasticism. He asserted the primacy and cognitive power of the human mind, the criteria of clarity and distinctness of knowledge.

Descartes' thoughts on music, expressed in his correspondence with Huygens, Mersenne and earlier systematically presented in the famous treatise "Compendium musicae" (1650), were insightful and fruitful. They, like a drop of water, reflected the dualism of the great thinker, his militant fervor as an uncompromising rationalist, and his persistent, although not infallible, search for truth.

In the field of theory, French musicians took very bold and important steps back in the first half of the 17th century. In 1636-1637, the outstanding researcher Minor monk Maren Mersenne came up with a treatise “Universal Harmony”, in which this Latin mind, a contemporary of Leibniz and Johannes Kepler, for the first time since Boethius and Eirigena, tried to outline the place of music in the universe and in human life.

Rousseau is a historian, political thinker, who wrote an entire scientific justification for the revolution of 1789 - the treatise "The Social Contract", and at the same time he is the founder of the French comic opera. This breadth and fruitfulness of literary and philosophical connections is one of characteristic features French music of the 17th-18th centuries.

Music sounded and developed, putting forward new genres, figurative spheres, creative manners- only in live communication with other areas and types of art. At that time French Theatre of Drama, poetry, painting, and architecture experienced a period of brilliant growth, which in its significance and artistic merits can be compared not only with medieval Gothic, but even with the Renaissance, of which it was in a sense the successor.

A new genre is emerging - classicism - a powerful and deep art, loved by the French people and expressing their genius.The brainchild of classicism was French opera of the 17th century. Her birth was an important event in history national culture a country that, until the second half of the 17th century, knew almost no other operatic art except the imported Italian one. However, the soil of French artistic culture did not appear to her at all alien and barren.

There were also two types of French ballet: dramatic and comic. The latter was especially popular.

Development musical theater did not at all follow an elementary scheme: first - ballet, then - opera. There has been a merging of genres.

Lully the composer also made his debut in these genres in his early period. In his “lyrical tragedies” (as his operas were called), Lully introduced elements of declamation, great attention devoted to choirs and dances.

In the 18th century, with the growing influence of the bourgeoisie, new forms of musical and social life took shape. Gradually, concerts go beyond the boundaries of palace halls and aristocratic salons. INA. Philidor (Danikan) organized in Parisregular public “Spiritual concerts”, inF. J. Gossec founded the Amateur Concerts Society. The evenings of the academic society “Friends of Apollo” (founded in), annual series of concerts were organized by the Royal Academy of Music.

In the 20-30s of the 18th century. The harpsichord suite reaches its highest peak. Among French harpsichordists, the leading role belongs toF. Couperin, the author of free cycles based on the principles of similarity and contrast of plays. Along with Couperin, J. F. Dandré and especiallyJ. F. Rameau.

IN 1733the successful premiere of Rameau’s opera “Hippolytus and Arica” ensured this composer a leading position in the court opera - “ Royal Academy music." In Rameau's work, the genre of lyrical tragedy reached its culmination. His vocal and declamatory style was enriched with melodic and harmonic expression. His two-part overtures are distinguished by great variety, but three-part overtures close to the Italian operatic “sinphony” are also represented in his work. In a number of operas, Rameau anticipated many later achievements in the field of musical drama, preparing the ground for operatic reformK. V. Gluck. Rameau owns a scientific system, a number of provisions of which served as the basis for the modern doctrine ofharmony(“Treatise on Harmony”, 1722; “The Origin of Harmony”, 1750, etc.).

By the mid-18th century, the heroic-mythological operas of Lully, Rameau and other authors ceased to meet the aesthetic needs of the bourgeois audience. Their popularity is inferior to the sharply satirical fair performances, known since the end of the 17th century. These performances are aimed at ridiculing the morals of the “higher” strata of society, and also parody court opera. The first authors of such comic operas were playwrights A. R. Lesage and S. S. Favara. In the bowels of the fair theater, a new French opera genre matured - opera comic. The strengthening of her position was facilitated by her arrival in Paris in1752Italian opera troupe, which staged a seriesopera buffe, including " Maid-mistress"Pergolesi, and the controversy on issues of opera art that flared up between supporters (bourgeois-democratic circles) and opponents (representatives of the aristocracy) of the Italian opera buffa - the so-called. "Buffon's War".

In the tense atmosphere of Paris, this controversy acquired particular urgency and received a huge public response. Figures of the French took an active part in itEnlightenment, who supported the democratic art of the “bufonists”, and Rousseau’s pastoral “The Village Sorcerer” () formed the basis of the first French comic opera. The slogan they proclaimed “imitation of nature” had a great influence on the formation of the French operatic style of the 18th century. The works of encyclopedists also contain valuable aesthetic and musical theoretical generalizations.

The 17th and early 18th centuries are one of the significant and brilliant periods in the history of French music. A whole period of development of musical art.

Musical culture Russia XVII– XVIII century

Not a single previous century in Russian culture was distinguished by such diversity, an abundance of contradictions, and the complexity of the relationship between trends of different directions as the 17th century. Being on the border of two great eras, it ends the period of Ancient Rus' and at the same time prepares the onset of a new period in Russian history.

New trends gradually undermined the foundations of the medieval religious worldview, penetrating into various areas of culture and knowledge. At the same time, the old still retained a strong position. In literature and art, the traditions of Ancient Rus' continued to develop and produce valuable fruits.

The struggle between old and new is also reflected in the art of the 17th century. In artistic creativity the role of the realistic principle is increasing. In literature appear purely secular genres. One of the most important sources of renewal of literature and art was folk art. The art of church singing did not remain aloof from the struggle of trends. Since the 50s, the style of partes polyphony has been established in Russian church singing, gradually pushing aside the old one-voice singing tradition. The transition from znamenny monophonic singing to polyphonic partes singing cannot be timed to a strictly defined date. This process was long and gradual. Throughout the second half of the 17th century, both styles continued to “coexist” with each other, remaining equal. Only towards the end of the century did the style of partes singing become dominant.

Profound changes in the entire structure of Russian artistic culture of the 17th century were associated with a new attitude towards art, a new understanding of its meaning and place in human life.

One of the most remarkable monuments of advanced musical and aesthetic thought of the 17th century is the treatise of the deacon of the Moscow Sretensky Cathedral in the Kremlin, Ioaniky Korenev, “On Divine Singing.”

Secular musical art in the 17th century could not yet completely triumph over the church and acquire dominant significance in the cultural life of Russian society. But its role is growing significantly, new genres and types of musical art are emerging.

Folk musical creativity also comes first. The wedding ceremony was widespread. But they were most widely reflected in folk art social processes and events of the Russian reality of the 17th century, full of acute collisions.

Along with traditional types song folklore, new genres arose. These include, first of all, songs of social protest that are varied in theme and character - comic-satirical, epic, “daring” songs about popular uprisings, about the heroes of the liberation struggle beloved by the people. A wide range of songs was written about Stepan Razin. Recordings of these songs were made no earlier than the second half of the 18th century.

In the 17th century, the penetration of new European forms of music into the life of Russian society increased. A number of lovers of “German” music appeared who maintained their own home chapels; Musicians from Poland, Germany, and Holland are invited to serve court ceremonies and entertainment purposes.

One of the obligatory accessories of European court etiquette in the 17th century was the theater. The desire to keep up with Western feudal monarchies in this regard was the reason for the creation of the first theater in Russia. On the stage of this theater the ballet "Orpheus", the play "Judith", the play "Comedy about prodigal son" and much more.

The flourishing of the concert style in Russian music of the late 17th century is associated with the activities of Nikolai Diletsky as a composer, theorist and teacher. A highly qualified and educated musician with a broad outlook, Diletsky opened up new perspectives for Russian music. This period in Russian music gave a great impetus to the development of musical culture.

Conclusion

The musical culture of the late 17th – early 18th centuries differs significantly from previous ones. She rises to the top not only in Russia, but also in other countries. Changes in the social and cultural spheres of Europe contribute to the involvement of new non-European musical phenomena, and the consumption of music products on audio media is changing attitudes towards music. It is beginning to be understood as a global phenomenon, and its consumer and entertainment function is strengthening. The role of mass culture and popular musical genres is increasing; they are separated from the culture of the elite, Western European musical classics and professional academic composing activities.