If we take into account the fact that schizoids, as a rule, are hardly suggestible and, even more so, stubborn and negativistic, then we can easily answer the sacramental question of why among outstanding scientists, especially in the field of exact sciences, there are so many people with a clear predominance of schizoradicals . The work of outstanding scientists - thoughtful metaphysicians, taxonomists, brilliant revolutionaries in science, overturning mossy paradigms - almost certainly bears the stamp of some noble madness. Here we can recall the famous statement of Niels Bohr regarding the hypothesis presented to the court of the respected council that this theory, of course, is crazy, but the whole question is whether it is crazy enough to be true.

An ordinary person, moderately socialized and critical, is inclined to doubt the reliability of the results he has obtained, especially if they fundamentally diverge from generally accepted ideas. There is too much environmental pressure, and the opinions of colleagues are especially important. A schizoid is not touched by such trifles. Being a man of “crooked logic”, as well as due to complete indifference to the opinions of others (he always knows how to do it) and thanks to his unique ability for unexpected comparisons of incomparable things, he easily goes for broke, transforming (sometimes beyond recognition) with fearless courage ) the face of the discipline in which he works. Needless to say, schizoid character traits alone are not enough for such a feat. But if original talent and high professionalism are added to reinforced concrete confidence in one’s own rightness, then the resulting explosive mixture works wonders, creating genuine revolutionaries in any field of knowledge.

Is the notorious crooked logic always so bad? A certain percentage of eccentrics are simply necessary. And thank God that there are people in the world who chronically do not know how to think stereotypically, because without this essential vitamin (we are not even talking about fundamental science) it is impossible to imagine, for example, any serious poetic originality. By the way, people with the so-called defect of logical sense are also good because they can freely dump any nonsense that has not had time to be molded into something digestible. They (and only they) will understand and appreciate you, because in general they perfectly understand everything that is unclear.

By the way, it would be very interesting to trace the relationship between the radicals “schizo” and “cyclo” in art. Kretschmer, for example, believed that full-blooded realistic prose is the absolute domain of cyclothymics (Balzac, Zola, Rabelais), and moral preaching is the lot of schizothymics par excellence (Schiller, Rousseau). Here you need to be doubly careful, because such subtle matters, unstable and ambiguous, leave the widest scope for all sorts of subjective interpretations. But something nevertheless dawns on us: sophisticated aesthetes, concerned mainly with the formal side of the matter and stylistic delights (suffice it to name Ciurlionis or Dali), still gravitate primarily towards the schizothymic pole.

What has been said, of course, does not mean that one can equate giftedness with one or another type of character. Actually, we have already talked about this. Characterological features can, at best, accelerate (or, conversely, slow down) the development of an individual’s creative potential. Kretschmer also noted that psychopathy is not an entrance ticket to the Olympus of sciences and arts, that there are highly intelligent and weak-minded psychopaths, as well as highly intelligent and poorly gifted ordinary people. Let us illustrate this simple maxim with two examples.

The first case was described by the Czech psychiatrist Stuhlik. For several years he observed a talented mathematician who fell ill with schizophrenia. According to the patient, many years ago, when he was a very young man, on the outskirts of the village where he then lived, an aircraft of an unknown type crashed. The entire crew died, and only one girl survived, who later became the patient’s wife. From her he learned that it was a spaceship that had arrived from the planet Astron. Since then, the patient’s life has radically changed. He began compiling dictionaries and grammars of the main languages ​​common on the mythical planet. He drew geographical maps, prepared lengthy reports and thick reference books concerning the population of a distant planet, its economic and political life. It got to the point that the patient even compiled a train schedule at one of the largest railway stations in Astron. The most fully developed language was Iskhi (invented, of course, by the patient himself). The grammar of this language turned out to be so detailed and suitable for practical use, and the vocabulary was so extensive that the patient spoke the Iskhi language without difficulty and even wrote several stories and novels in it. Other languages ​​were under development. Professional linguists invited as experts rated the work done by the patient very highly. They unanimously declared that such work testifies not only to the author’s extraordinary talent, but also to his brilliant professional training in the field of applied and theoretical linguistics. Stukhlik ended his extract from the medical history as follows: “The patient declares that he will create as many languages ​​as he wants...”

Now case number two, which the author of these lines witnessed during his student years. At that time, there was an elderly schizophrenic in the Perm regional psychiatric hospital (he was from a village and had a four-year education, and at the beginning of the conversation he introduced himself as a specialist in oil and bread). According to his original concept, the blood of people and animals, accumulated in subsoil voids, after a series of complex metamorphoses turns into oil. In some clever way, in the spirit of the “crooked logic” of a schizophrenic (it’s hard to remember the details now), all this parsley was linked to the grain harvest.

Summary: despite the disparate level in terms of general education and professional training, the heroes of these two stories are almost like twin brothers. In both cases, we see generic features of the schizophrenic way of thinking: the formation of an overvalued idea, the paradoxical logic of “topsy-turvy”, the attraction to abstract schemes to the detriment of details, uncriticality and negativism.

But what about the fact that virtue has a sharp nose and humor has a thick nose? (Remember the playful Kretschmerian passage with which we began the previous chapter?) In other words, what about a sense of humor, which, without a doubt, is one of the most important personality characteristics? It would seem that the cheerful cycloid should give a hundred points ahead to the schizothymic cracker in this matter. On the one hand, deadly serious people, the so-called agelasts (as, by the way, hypochondriacs, which often coincide), gravitate predominantly towards the schizothymic pole. But upon a closer look at the problem, such a convenient and logical scheme immediately crumbles into dust. Of course, if we are talking about juicy, full-blooded, earthly humor, about the triumph of the material and corporeal (let us remember Francois Rabelais!), then this is the ancestral domain of cyclothymic. But we find the subtlest irony, paradoxical wit, poisonous satire, and destructive causticism in abundance in classical schizoids. You don’t have to look far for examples - here are Gogol, Swift, and Bernard Shaw. What can you do, to each his own...

But epithymicists seem to have the least amount of humor, although here too I would not rush to conclusions. (One may recall Napoleon Bonaparte, who once told the tragic actor Talma, from whom he took lessons in his youth: “I am, of course, the most tragic person of our time.”)

Kretschmer's dichotomy at one time produced the effect of a bomb exploding and was instantly picked up by numerous followers. Works poured in as if from a cornucopia. Outstanding Russian psychiatrist Pyotr Borisovich Gannushkin(1875-1933) found Kretschmer's approach fruitful and significantly expanded his typology. In addition, Kretschmer's classification of characters intersected at a number of points with Gannushkin's teaching on borderline psychiatry, which he was intensively developing at that time. Epileptoids, psychasthenics, a group of hysterical characters, and several other types were additionally described.

Not without criticism, of course, in which there was a lot of both fair and unfair. Most of all, Kretschmer was reproached for moving in the direction from pathology to normality. What, now almost everyone should be considered a potential schizophrenic or epileptic? Why is psychopathological material so abundantly used to describe the character of a healthy person? On the other hand, the classical four-member classification of temperaments, dating back to Hippocrates and Galen, and numerous typifications of characters according to other criteria (and the Pavlovian scheme, which we wrote about above, among others) are far from perfect. Well, who managed to fully explain a person with all his giblets?

The overly zealous critics who attack Kretschmer and his followers for allegedly overdoing it in terms of psychopathology have a lot to say. In fact: when they talk about a “normal personality” or “normal character,” they involuntarily fall into some contradiction, since the word “personality” itself emphasizes the individual, the special, the opposite of the norm or the average. The same applies to character. When they talk about someone having this or that character, they inevitably point to a certain one-sidedness of his mental organization and make it clear that there is some disharmony in his psyche. Translated from Greek, the word “character” means “trait, feature.” Character is precisely what distinguishes one person from another, therefore the presence of some predominant character traits in itself indicates a lack of balance in the relationship between individual aspects of mental activity. After all, if we had under observation a person with an ideally normal psyche (which, of course, is an absolute utopia), then it would hardly be possible to talk about the presence of this or that character, because in his mental organization there is not a single line that distinguishes him from the general series. Here is how Gannushkin writes about this: “It is clear that the study of character can be fruitful only if it leaves the narrow framework of normal psychology and is guided, in addition, by data from pathopsychology. All this is already completely clear a priori, but the same thing becomes completely definite and unshakable from the data of experience. If we take any description of characters or temperaments, at least the one made by the famous Kant (meaning “Anthropology” by Immanuel Kant. - L. Sh.), if you think about it and read this description, if you compare it with our clinical experience, then you will need to come to a very definite conclusion that the description of the so-called normal temperaments coincides to the smallest detail with the description of psychopathic personalities taken from clinical psychiatry; one can say even more that a correct understanding of these types, these temperaments became possible only from the time when this understanding was based on a psychiatric point of view.”

We do not intend here to analyze in detail Kretschmer’s expanded typology, so in conclusion we will briefly dwell on only one group - epileptoids. Already from the term itself it is clear that an epileptoid is in the same relationship to epilepsy as a schizoid is to schizophrenia. Simply put, epileptoid – means like an epileptic. “With a cross around his neck, with the Gospel in his hand and a stone in his bosom” - this is how the classic of German psychiatry Emil Kraepelin described this type. This statement is often remembered when describing the epithymic character - a combination of brutality, obsequiousness, pedantry and viscosity.

The descriptions of old psychiatrists exhaustively present the disgusting appearance of the epithymic: extremely cruel, deceitful, hot-tempered, flattering, overwhelmed by passions and adamant in achieving his goal, a voluptuous prude and jealous, but at the same time a pedant, pathologically detailed, clingy and viscous. A very unpleasant and difficult person. Dostoevsky painted a whole gallery of such types - just compare Stavrogin, Smerdyakov and Fyodor Karamazov. Dostoevsky was not only a brilliant psychopathologist, but, as you know, he himself suffered from epilepsy, which is why everything turned out so convincingly for him. Vladimir Levi is absolutely right: “Of course, one cannot understand Dostoevsky through epilepsy alone, but the frantic breath of the “sacred disease” can be heard in every line of his...”

The classic portrait of an epileptoid is the image of Porfiry Vladimirovich Golovlev (nicknamed Judas) by Saltykov-Shchedrin. They say that the great Russian satirist wrote from life, having in mind his own brother, a severe epileptic. The result was an ideal type, even now in a textbook: viscosity, thoroughness, sweetness, jokes, jokes, and endless litotes - everything is right there. Let us allow ourselves a small quote:

“The blizzard, apparently, is really here,” notes Arina Petrovna (mother of Judushka Golovlev. L. Sh.), - squeals and squeals!

- Well, let him squeal. She squeals, and we are here drinking tea - that’s it, my friend, Mama! - Porfiry Vladimirych responds.

- Oh, it’s not good to be in the field now, if this kind of mercy of God finds anyone!

- Some people don’t feel well, but grief isn’t enough for us. For some it is dark and cold, but for us it is both light and warm. We sit and drink some tea. And with sugar, and cream, and lemon. If we want it with rum, we’ll drink it with rum.

- Yes, if now...

- Excuse me, mummy. I say: it’s very bad in the field now. No roads, no paths - everything was covered in snow. Wolves again. But here it’s bright and cozy, and we’re not afraid of anything. We sit here and sit in peace and quiet. I wanted to play cards - let's play cards; I wanted to drink some tea - let's drink some tea. We won’t drink more than we need, but we’ll drink as much as we need. Why is this so? Because, dear friend Mama, God’s mercy does not leave us. If it weren’t for him, the king of heaven, maybe we would now be lost in the field, and it would be dark and cold for us... In some zipunishka, an inferior sash, little bast shoes...”

These people are stubborn, quick-tempered, and intolerant of the opinions of others. Their affective attitude almost always has a somewhat unpleasant tint, tinged with poorly concealed malice, against the background of which from time to time, for insignificant reasons, violent outbursts of uncontrollable anger develop, often leading to dangerous violent actions. In family life, they are intolerable tyrants, causing scandals over trifles and constantly making all sorts of comments to the family. The extraordinary punctuality of the epithymician stems from his categorical conviction that everything should be done exactly this way and not otherwise. These people are extremely active, super sociable, going headlong towards their goals, interfering in everything and looking everywhere for specific culprits. They are prone to forming extremely valuable ideas, are unusually consistent, and never doubt that they are right. Such a person can only be stopped by a shot from a gun. In terms of somatic constitution, a significant part of epileptoids are distinguished by a peculiar athletic-dysplastic physique. If there is intellectual giftedness, the epithymic person is able to reach very great heights. Indomitable, overflowing energy, combined with incredible persistence in achieving their goal, allows such people to literally move mountains.

Among the outstanding historical figures there are many people of this type - Alexander the Great, Caesar, Mohammed, Peter the Great, Napoleon.

At this point we leave Kretschmer alone and move on to other typologies, the authors of which sought (when constructing their own schemes) to get rid of the oppressive connection with the clinic as much as possible.

Allocative efficiency - this is the optimal combination of economic resources for the manufacturer, which gives the optimal combination of products for the consumer.

In the example of a farmer, the optimal combination of inputs for wheat production was explored. If we add to this example the fact that the farmer, in accordance with market demand, is simultaneously looking for the best combination of the products he produces (wheat or rye, or a little wheat and a lot of rye, and maybe also oats), then we get an example of an allocative search efficiency. In essence, the farmer will “judge whether the use of a particular resource is excessive, optimal or insufficient at prevailing prices in the market for inputs and final products...”.

The main barriers to achieving maximum allocative efficiency include the monopolization of economic resources (with the result that the owners of these resources do not always use them as efficiently as possible, while there is not enough for more efficient producers), as well as the closedness of national economies (with the result that the economy misses the ability to fully exploit supply and demand in foreign markets).

Due to allocative inefficiency, a situation arises called technical inefficiency (X-inefficiency), when the actual volume of production is below the maximum possible level (i.e. below the production possibilities frontier), and the costs and prices for these products are above the minimum low level. An example would be the construction of housing in Russia, especially in large cities, where, with the support of local authorities, monopoly firms dominate and do not allow active competition from either domestic or foreign builders. As a result, less housing is being built in the country, and it costs much more than in the last Soviet decade.

Production efficiency

In economic practice, economic efficiency is most often measured in its narrow meaning, i.e. as production efficiency. It is represented by a number of indicators, including:

• labor productivity (the cost of manufactured products based on the number of employees or hours worked, or the cost of labor costs). Labor productivity in Russia, calculated according to the first option, in the last decade during the boom period grew at an annual rate of 5–7%, including in the manufacturing industry – at 6–9%;
• material and energy intensity (the cost or quantity of consumed natural resources, including those that have undergone primary processing - raw materials, materials and semi-finished products, as well as fuel and energy, in relation to the cost of manufactured products). Thus, in 2010, Russia consumed 1.043 trillion tons of fuel equivalent (1t reference fuel = 7000 kcal), the volume of output amounted to 44.9 trillion rubles, i.e. per issue 1 rub. the product consumed 23 g of fuel;
• capital intensity (the value of physical capital used, more precisely, fixed capital, based on the cost of production) or return on capital (the inverse indicator obtained by dividing the cost of manufactured products by the cost of physical capital used, more precisely, fixed capital). Thus, in 2010 in our country, the value of fixed capital excluding unfinished construction amounted to 93.2 trillion rubles. and products worth 44.9 trillion rubles were produced. To calculate capital intensity, we divide the first value by the second and get a capital productivity ratio of 1.94, i.e. to produce products worth 1 rub. 2,075 rubles were required. fixed assets. When calculating capital productivity, we swap the numerator and denominator and get a coefficient of 0.48, i.e. for 1 rub. fixed capital produced products worth 48 kopecks. In a more detailed analysis of capital intensity (capital productivity), the incremental capital intensity (capital productivity) indicator is also used, which shows how many rubles of investment are required to increase output by 1 ruble. (by how many kopecks will output increase when investing by 1 ruble).

To determine the efficiency of use of all resources (more precisely, to measure the increase in the efficiency of their use as a contribution to the economic growth of the country), they measure total factor productivity (total factor productivity ). According to estimates, in 1990–2007. it provided 52–54% of the economic growth of developed countries.

Firms use a number of indicators to calculate the efficiency of their activities. In Russian statistics, primarily the following are published: return on assets And profitability of goods and products sold (works, services). The first indicator is calculated as the ratio of a company's profit and the value of its assets. In the pre-crisis years, this figure in Russia was 6–9%, in subsequent years – 5–7%. The second indicator is narrower - it is calculated as the ratio between the cost and the cost of goods and services sold. In the pre-crisis years it was at the level of 10–14%, then about 11%.

All these are cost indicators, i.e. measured in monetary terms. If we measure them only in physical quantities, then these will not be economic indicators, but technological efficiency, which differs from the cost of resources. For example, from 1 cu. m of unprocessed wood in Russia produces 45 g of newsprint, or 58 g of printing paper, or 61 g of writing paper, or 152 g of containerboard. At the same time, according to technological efficiency, it is rational to use only new equipment, and according to economic efficiency, it is possible to use old equipment, which, although less productive, does not require purchase costs.

When calculating the efficiency of purchasing and consuming goods, the consumer, as a rule, proceeds from the alternative cost, i.e. from the value of those goods that he has to give up when obtaining the desired good. It is clear that this opportunity cost is different for different consumers, since their preferences (tastes) are not the same. However, for most goods in society there is a generally accepted, established opportunity cost, although this also changes over time.

A. Sklyarov

Mysteries of the ancient history of the Land of the Rising Sun

Consequences of geological facts

A fact is a rather peculiar thing. A fact, if it exists, does not require any proof. Its existence is already its own proof. If the fact requires anything, it is only an explanation.

Any picture of the past built by historians and archaeologists (even the most authoritative and recognized ones) is not at all some kind of “truth established once and for all,” but just a theory. Theories can be different, and their real correctness is determined not by authorities, but by facts.

Moreover. If we strive to adequately describe the world around us (including its past), then we inevitably have to adhere to the main principle of empirical knowledge - if the facts contradict the theory, then we must throw out the theory, not the facts.

And what happens in this case?..

The Yonaguni monument and other objects in the neighborhood indicate the presence of a certain community with a fairly developed stone industry on the Japanese Islands approximately 10-12 thousand years ago. After all, where large-scale mining of stone takes place, it cannot be done without its processing and use - otherwise there is no point in mining. And a developed stone industry on such a scale also presupposes an appropriate level of organization within such a community, since without the ordering and coordination of the actions of individual individuals, no industry can be ensured.

In addition, such large-scale stone mining - regardless of the level of technology - also requires a sufficient number of appropriate tools. After all, even the recesses for wedge cutting of stone need to be hollowed out with something. And accordingly, the production of tools suitable for this should be established.

But it is extremely difficult to drill even small holes for wedge cutting, and even more so to split off huge blocks from a rock mass with stone tools (if possible at all - which is a very big question). Therefore, there must be some tools made of metal - even just copper or bronze. That is, there must also be a developed technology for extracting metals and making tools from them.

As a result, we inevitably come to the conclusion that in such a distant time, Yonaguni must have been home to not just some kind of community of primitive hunters and gatherers, but the very civilization that exists!..

Meanwhile, according to the version of archaeologists and historians, metals and the art of processing them were brought to the Japanese Islands by migrants from the mainland only at the turn of the Jomon and Yayoi periods (that is, in the 1st millennium BC), and any significant stone structures began to be built later - only during the Kofun period, that is, approximately in the 5th-7th centuries AD.

Rice. 32. Bronze blade of a dagger (2nd–1st century BC)

The indisputability of geological facts leads to an obvious contradiction, which lies in the huge time gap between the Yonaguni quarry and the stone industry of the Kofun period - at least 8-10 thousand years between them.

How can it be?..

There are two ways out of this contradiction.

Option one. The dating of historians and archaeologists, at least in relation to some stone structures on the Japanese Islands, is fundamentally erroneous, and the age of these structures is much older than the officially accepted one. In this case, the question of dating metal products found by archaeologists (for example, bronze tools) is not even important. These items could well have been obtained by melting down older ones. After all, the same archaeologists record the fact that the Japanese melted down metal products delivered to the islands from China and Korea. It is even considered firmly and securely established.

Option two. In the very distant past, on the territory of what is now Japan, a civilization unknown to us actually left traces of its presence, which for some reason at some point in time either died or curtailed its presence on the islands. And for a long time, for many millennia, the inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago found themselves thrown back in their development (or simply never rose to the appropriate level at all). Until the arrival of a wave of migrants from the mainland at the end of the Jomon period, as historians describe.

Rice. 33. Ritual weapons made of bronze (Yayoi period)

The first option is supported by the fact that there is still no reliable objective method for determining the time of stone processing. About fifteen to twenty years ago there was a statement that this time could be determined using one of the radioisotope methods (allegedly, even the age of Stonehenge, according to this method, turned out to be about 14 thousand years). But later this method was never confirmed.

Any dating of the manufacture of stone products and structures is therefore only indirect. Most often, these dates are assigned based on radiocarbon dating of any organic remains found near a stone artifact. However, there are always doubts about the transfer of dating from one find to another. After all, even the presence of remains in a stone burial does not say anything about the time of creation of the burial itself (as well as whether it was a burial at all) - the body of the deceased could well have been placed in an older structure, which, moreover, originally had a completely different appointment. Moreover, this practice was very widespread in the ancient world.

For the same reason, it is impossible, in particular, to determine the exact age of the stone bowls on the island of Yonaguni...

The second option assumes the presence in ancient times of a fairly highly developed unknown civilization. This option immediately breaks down into two versions - the version of paleocontact and the version of the ancient earthly civilization.

According to the paleocontact version, the Yonaguni Monument could serve as a quarry for those representatives of a very highly technologically advanced alien civilization who once visited our planet in ancient times, and whom our distant ancestors called “gods.”

We (during expeditions conducted under the auspices of the Foundation for the Development of Science “III Millennium”) discovered traces of high technologies for stone processing in a number of countries - in Egypt, Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Lebanon, Greece and Turkey. And in my opinion, these traces speak precisely in favor of an alien civilization, since we find traces of machine tools, but do not find any signs of the production base of these tools. Consequently, this base was located somewhere outside the Earth, and accordingly we must talk about an alien civilization.

Unfortunately, the Yonaguni Monument is a quarry of fairly soft shale rocks that are quite susceptible to erosion. Long-term exposure to sea waves during the gradual immersion of the Monument under water, and then no less long-term exposure to underwater currents and corals (no matter how slowly they grew there) would inevitably destroy any traces of high-tech tools, if they were there. Therefore, the chances of finding such traces on the Monument are close to zero. Accordingly, it is not possible to directly correlate this object specifically with the alien civilization of the ancient “gods”. And the justification for the version of paleocontact in this case can only be indirect.

Rice. 34. An ancient cut with a circular saw on a rock in Sacsayhuaman (Peru)

According to another version, the Yonaguni Monument could be a quarry of some terrestrial civilization - even one not so highly developed as to possess machine technology. Among the candidates for such a civilization, according to the most common hypothesis, first of all could be the civilization of the Atlanteans - the inhabitants of the legendary Atlantis.

If we focus directly on the texts of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, who was the first to mention the legend of Atlantis in his dialogues “Timaeus” and “Critias,” then the heyday and death of the Atlantean civilization during some powerful catastrophe occurs approximately nine thousand years BC. This is quite consistent with the dating of the Yonaguni Monument by geologists.

But here the large distances between Japan and the supposed location of Atlantis raise significant doubts about this version. After all, according to the same Plato, Atlantis was located somewhere “beyond the Pillars of Hercules” (the ancient name of the Strait of Gibraltar), that is, in the Atlantic Ocean - almost on the opposite side of the globe from Japan.

Of course, the Atlanteans (according to Plato) were known as skilled sailors, and purely hypothetically it can be assumed that they sailed here too. But why would they mine stone on Yonaguni, and on such a large scale?.. They had enough other worries. At least eternal wars with their neighbors, including the ancient ancestors of the Greeks...

Rice. 35. One of the reconstructions of the location of the legendary Atlantis

From a geographical point of view, the version of a certain ancient continent Mu, which was supposedly located somewhere in the Pacific Ocean and, like Atlantis, perished in some kind of catastrophe, turns out to be much more attractive. According to this version, the state of Lemuria was located on this continent, and its inhabitants - the Lemurians - reached both the shores of the Americas and the shores of Asia on their ships.

However, with factual support for the hypothesis about the real existence of the Mu continent, the situation is extremely bad. For the first time, mention of the mythical Lemurians appears only in Blavatsky, who lived at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Before her, no one had spoken about the continent of Mu and its inhabitants. There were only ancient legends and traditions of the peoples of the Pacific Islands that their ancestors arrived from somewhere “over the sea.” But such information, even if it has a real historical basis, represents a very weak justification for the development of the idea of ​​an entire continent that sank during some catastrophic events to the bottom of the Pacific Ocean.

Authors who picked up Blavatsky's ideas and developed them in the twentieth century often argue that the existence of the continent of Mu in the past is allegedly confirmed by the similarity of a number of elements between cultures on opposite sides of the Pacific Ocean. There is no doubt - such similarities do exist and are sometimes very striking. But it also allows for much simpler explanations that do without introducing an additional lost continent.

In particular, such similarities between different cultures are automatically explained within the framework of the paleocontact hypothesis - alien “gods” gave knowledge to people on different continents (such transfer of knowledge is mentioned in the legends and traditions of many peoples), but the “gods” were the same , hence the similarity of cultures.

Another explanation is the underestimation by historians of ancient transoceanic contacts, which in fact were much more developed than is currently assumed. A lot of facts have now been accumulated that speak of highly developed contacts between the inhabitants of different continents. For example, in 1787, in Massachusetts, USA, workers during the construction of a road found a treasure of Carthaginian coins minted in the 3rd century BC. Similar coins were later found in Connecticut. And in 1972, the remains of a Carthaginian ship with characteristic amphorae were discovered off the coast of Honduras. A vessel containing a treasure of several hundred Roman coins was found off the coast of Venezuela. And in 1976, just a couple of tens of kilometers from the capital of Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, divers discovered ancient Greek amphorae at the bottom. At the end of the 20th century, it turned out that when embalming Egyptian mummies, cocaine was used, which can only be obtained from the coca plant, which grew only on the Pacific coast of South America.

Things are even worse for the Mu continent hypothesis with geological data. The fact is that the earth's crust in the continental region differs sharply from the oceanic crust - both in age and in chemical composition. And in the vast expanses of the Pacific Ocean, not the slightest sign of continental crust is found anywhere. So all the “descriptions” of a certain continent Mu have to be recognized as just an unfounded fantasy of the supporters of this hypothesis.

However, the Mu continent is not suitable for solving the Yonaguni problem even within the framework of this hypothesis itself. After all, according to Blavatsky, the Lemurians lived long before the Atlanteans. Consequently, we additionally get a complete discrepancy in dating...

Rice. 36. Lost Lemuria as imagined by the artist

There is another very exotic, but not devoid of logic, hypothesis, in which we are no longer talking about a separate continent, but about the so-called Sunda subcontinent.

The fact is that if you mentally lower the level of the World Ocean by the previously mentioned 100-150 meters, then not only the surroundings of the modern Japanese islands will be above the water, but also vast territories located both to the south and to the north of Japan. These territories are called the ancient Sunda subcontinent, which previously united most of the Sunda Islands, the island of Kalimantan, the Philippines, and possibly the Japanese Islands and Sakhalin with Southeast Asia.

The death of the Sunda and the subsidence of its sections ended only a few thousand years ago. But it began just 12 thousand years ago.

The boundary of this subcontinent can be drawn using both shelf depth data and zoogeographic data. There is an imaginary line dividing two worlds - the world of the tropical and subtropical fauna of South Asia and the world of the peculiar fauna of Australia and Oceania. This line was called the Wallace Line. When mapping the distribution areas of animals typical of Southeast Asia, it was discovered that the eastern border of their distribution runs between the islands of Bali and Lombok, separated by a strait about thirty kilometers wide (the difference between the fauna of these islands is greater than between the fauna of Japan and England! ), then the Makassar Strait, where it separates Kalimantan from Sulawesi and goes around the Philippine Islands from the west and northwest. In fact, the Wallace Line is a water barrier that is believed to have proven an insurmountable barrier to land animals, freshwater fish, most plants, and early humans.

Rice. 37. Wallace Line

According to the same version, the Sunda subcontinent was the zone where the formation of the proto-Australoids and their culture took place. There is an assumption that it was from here that the Ainu came, who, after the flooding of the Sunda, Nipponida (Japan and Sakhalin, connected to the mainland) and Okhotia (Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands, connected to the mainland) found themselves isolated on the islands of the Japanese archipelago, Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands, thus preserving an ancient anthropological type that had disappeared on the Asian continent.

Another thing is that within the framework of this hypothesis, as well as within the framework of the modern version of historians, the presence in the area of ​​​​the modern Japanese islands of an ancient, highly developed civilization that would be able to leave behind the Yonaguni Monument is not envisaged. But one can also assume that the ancestors of the Ainu were not so primitive and created a certain civilization that mined stone on the island of Yonaguni for some of its needs. Later, due to some circumstances, this civilization degraded, and the art of working with stone was forgotten for many millennia.

Although personally, I still prefer the version of paleocontact, since such strange failures and interruptions in the development of civilization seem extremely doubtful to me...

Where to look for traces of an unknown civilization?

However, no matter what ancient civilization one assumes, it would be strange if it left behind some traces only under water. There should be signs of its presence on land. But what exactly and where to look?..

Simple logic dictates that it is useless to look for something like pyramids or huge palaces. If such large objects existed in such a limited territory as Japan, then they would have long been known throughout the world, as, for example, the pyramids and temples of Egypt are known.

Since we are talking about very ancient objects, it is theoretically possible that only the lower tier of masonry or even just the foundation could remain from some structures. And archaeologists really, in many cases, are dealing with the fact that they are discovering precisely the foundations of some ancient buildings. It often happens that the ancient foundation is used as a solid foundation for later and even modern structures. Moreover, practically all over the world the practice of erecting temples on certain “sacred places” is quite widespread, a considerable part of which is connected with ancient buildings. Therefore, it would make sense to look for such foundations.

But here we are faced with another feature of Japan, in which the main widespread religions are Shintoism and Buddhism. On the one hand, within both religions there is a veneration of ancient sacred places. And this can even help in the search - if the place is ancient, then it is most likely revered as sacred, and there may be a temple nearby.

On the other hand, reverence is special. So, let’s say, within the framework of Buddhism there is a tradition of maintaining temple places “in working order”, as a result of which Buddhist temples are continuously being built and improved, sometimes undergoing very strong changes even in their most ancient parts. In Shintoism, the practice of periodically renovating temples is generally accepted. Dilapidated structures are dismantled, and new ones are built in their place (previously, there was even a widespread custom of dismantling small parts of old temples from house to house as “family” items for veneration and worship).

It is clear that in such conditions the chances of finding intact the remains of structures many thousands of years old quickly go to zero. And if there is something left, it can be literally “piecemeal” in nature.

Rice. 38. Small Shinto shrine

In the second half of the twentieth century, thanks to a series of publications that examined various alternative versions of ancient history that do not fit into the picture accepted in academic science, public interest in ancient megalithic structures - structures made of huge stone blocks - developed. The mystery of the origin and strangeness of such objects, associated with the use in ancient times of stone blocks weighing tens and hundreds of tons, many of which, in addition, moved over enormous distances, could not help but attract attention. There was even something like a “fashion” for ancient objects. And an informal movement of various local enthusiasts and local historians spontaneously arose, who literally combed entire regions around their place of residence in search of at least something reminiscent of ancient megalithic objects.

This movement did not bypass Japan either. As a result, you can now find on the Internet the Megalithic portal (www.megalithic.co.uk), which lists hundreds of different ancient objects on the territory of the Japanese Islands. Indication of the location of these objects is also accompanied by their photographs and a brief description, which greatly facilitates the search for such ancient artifacts that, in some respects, raise doubts about their official dating and could potentially relate to the mentioned “traces on land” of an unknown ancient civilization. We used the “tips” of this portal when preparing our filming and research expedition, which was organized under the auspices of the Third Millennium Science Development Foundation and took place in April 2013.

Rice. 39. Participants of the expedition to Japan (April 2013)

It is quite natural that the main information available on the Internet concerns mainly the four largest islands of the Japanese archipelago - Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku. After all, there are more enthusiasts here, and the transport infrastructure is better developed than on other islands, and therefore it is easier to get to the sites. Try to at least go around the thousands of small islands...

Since we were primarily interested in the possibility of discovering traces of an ancient civilization with fairly developed stone processing, we deliberately discarded those objects that, although ancient, had clear signs of the use of the most primitive technologies in stone processing. Moreover, in addition to the data from the said Megalithic portal, we were assisted in the preliminary search for information by two of our compatriots who now live in Japan, and one of them, Evgeniy Shlakin, even accompanied us during the trip, which he helped organize in many ways. As a result of this “sifting” of the initial information, it was decided to limit ourselves to just two islands – Honshu and Kyushu.

The first of them - the island of Honshu - not only has objects that show promise in our search, but is also known for its ancient legends and traditions that mention certain “gods”, including those who visited this island. Kyushu is considered by historians and archaeologists to be the island through which a wave of migration from China and Korea passed at the turn of the Jomon and Yayoi periods. Therefore, the objects here are considered the most ancient by academic science. Well, for us, the more ancient, the more attractive...

In some ways, historians are still right

As often happens on such trips, a certain part of the ancient objects we planned to examine turned out to be completely within the framework of the official version of history. And this is not surprising - after all, historians are not wrong about everything. In some ways they may be right.

In particular, this applies to the island of Kyushu, where our attention at the preliminary stage was primarily attracted by objects near the cities of Kumamoto and Hitoyoshi - objects that are considered either tombs or temples in rock formations. In the photographs available on the Internet, these objects looked pretty decent, giving hope that there was a chance to see some traces of non-trivial technologies in stone processing. The obviously artificial planes that were available especially attracted attention, since it is by the quality of the planes that it is often possible to determine the level of technology used in their creation.

Rice. 40. Rock chambers near Kumamoto

Alas. We have repeatedly seen that very often photographs, no matter how high-quality equipment they are made, do not convey all the nuances of real objects. Especially in cases where we are talking about photographs in which only a general view is visible. A camera (and a video camera too) tends to quite seriously “smooth out” the irregularities and errors that exist in reality.

This is exactly what we encountered in the rock features near Kumamoto and Hitoyoshi. What looked like smooth planes in the photo turned out to be not so smooth in reality. In addition, the flat surfaces were not the result of careful and painstaking artificial leveling, but only a by-product of the fact that the rooms were created in a rock mass consisting of shale rocks. Slate is precisely characterized by the presence of weakly interconnected flat layers, by dividing which one can automatically obtain fairly smooth surfaces.

Besides. Slate stones are quite soft, as a result of which they are quite easy to process using even the simplest technologies and tools. Taking into account the fact that, as historians believe, at the turn of the Jomon and Yayoi periods, not only copper, but also bronze (and even iron) tools were brought to Japan from China and Korea, processing such rocks did not pose any particular problems. Moreover, what looked like temples in some photographs turned out to be just modest rooms that, at best, can accommodate two or three people, and even then not at full height.

The fact that fairly simple technologies and tools were used to create these little rooms is clearly demonstrated by numerous chisel or pick marks, which are found not only in the inner corners (where they are most often and best preserved), but also on the surfaces of the walls and ceilings.

Rice. 41. Traces of manual processing of the walls of rock chambers near Hitoyoshi

The size of the rocky rooms and the lack of communication between individual rooms completely allows us to reject the version of ancient temples. These objects are completely unsuitable for functioning in such a capacity. And even if they are now revered as “sacred,” as indicated by the altars specially installed nearby with sculptures of saints and gods, this is a later change in the functional purpose of these objects.

The version of rock tombs is also not credible. For tombs, the volume of a whole series of rooms seems excessive. It all looks much more like a modest-sized home. More precisely, small rooms for overnight stays and for shelter from bad weather, which, for example, were widely used in the Middle East as such shelters during the period of early Christianity.

Sometimes you are faced with bewilderment as to why people even needed to cut down the rock and go deeper into the mountain. After all, even for soft stones this requires a lot of effort. Especially in conditions when only the simplest tools are at hand. Wouldn't it be better to build something nearby?..

However, we should not forget that Japan is located in a very earthquake-prone area, and earthquakes are a common occurrence here. Under these conditions, any artificial buildings always carry the threat of destruction. And the premises inside the rock mass find themselves in a much more advantageous position. Indeed, during an earthquake, these rooms move from side to side along with the entire rock or even a mountain and turn out to be a much stronger and more reliable object than any structure assembled from individual parts.

Rice. 42. Altar next to the “little rooms” in Hitoyoshi

However, artificial buildings were also erected at the dawn of the known history of Japan. Among them, for example, are structures such as dolmens, which are widespread throughout almost the entire Eurasian continent and are somewhat reminiscent of large birdhouses. Most often, on the Japanese Islands, the simplest option is found - dolmens made from a minimum number of slabs in the shape of an ordinary box, although sometimes very colorfully painted with various geometric patterns. Often, to strengthen the structure, these dolmens were additionally lined with stones or covered with earth, thereby forming a small mound.

Rice. 43. Patterns on the walls of the dolmen (Kyushu island)

Such dolmens buried on top, according to the existing classification of megaliths, are, however, closer to corridor tombs, since a corridor was most often attached to the dolmen. In Japan, such a corridor often remained open. We saw a similar design, for example, on the island of Honshu near the town of Fuchu.

This tomb, called Oichi-kofun, is located on the top of a hill and is, so to speak, a three-room dolmen made of flat slabs. Three small square rooms, assembled from such slabs and covered with earth, diverge in different directions from the end of the open-top corridor. Nowadays this structure is additionally strengthened from rains eroding the soil with sandbags.

Rice. 44. Oichi-kofun

The very modest size of the rooms, in which one can only fit in a squatting position, is quite consistent with the opinion of archaeologists and historians that the structure served as a burial place. Unless in this case, we are most likely talking about some kind of family burial of a fairly important and significant person, since it is unlikely that an ordinary Japanese could afford such a tomb.

The quality of processing of stone slabs, as well as the nature of the existing masonry, do not raise any doubts about the use of the simplest manual technologies in the construction of Oichi-kofun. And the size of the slabs is very modest - they do not exceed several hundred kilograms in weight. Such plates are quite easy to move using a regular lever. Everything fully corresponds to the level of development of technologies and tools that was available on the Japanese Islands during the Kofun period, that is, during the period of mass construction of such tombs (V-VII centuries AD).

Rice. 45. Inside Oichi-kofun

Naturally, the stability of such a structure leaves much to be desired. And Oichi-kofun, apparently, did not stand the test of time for strength - archaeologists clearly lifted and strengthened the fallen slabs. Traces of this repair are also quite clearly visible here.

The general Japanese desire for order and cleanliness, which literally catches the eye on the streets of cities and towns, seems to be reflected in archaeological sites. Perhaps they are irritated by the ruins into which ancient objects inevitably turn over time. After all, ruins are also a kind of “mess” that clearly does not fit into the local mentality. Therefore, the Japanese also strive to bring archaeological monuments into a decent form, convenient for viewing by numerous tourists, including not only visitors, but also residents of the country itself.

However, this desire to ennoble the ancient heritage inevitably has negative consequences - sometimes repairs and restoration are carried out in such a way that the resulting object simply falls out of the historical context and ceases to be of interest to those who want to understand the real, rather than decorative, past. We encountered one example of such restoration literally on the very first day of our trip, when we visited the ancient tomb of Hachiman-yama-kofun, located seventy kilometers north of Tokyo.

Rice. 46. ​​Hachiman-yama-kofun

Hachiman-yama-kofun is a tomb with several chambers connected by corridors, which ultimately form an elongated structure. Two different types of masonry were used during construction. Some of the walls are made of very small blocks, and the other part of the walls and ceilings are made of flat blocks of slate rocks.

Both on small stones and on slabs - both inside and outside - we found traces of machine tools in abundance. But upon closer examination, it turned out that these were modern traces that appeared on the stones during the restoration of the tomb. Some of the marks were left by a jackhammer when breaking off blocks in the quarry, and some were left by circular saws such as a grinder, which, when cutting a stone, leaves a quite characteristic mark in the form of concentric circles, offset relative to each other.

The restoration here was of such a large-scale nature that it is sometimes difficult to determine where any truly ancient blocks are located. As a result, the result of the restoration, although it looks beautiful, has completely lost its historical value. The tomb is now only suitable for schoolchildren who are periodically brought here, serving as a kind of “textbook” on the history of Japan.

Rice. 47. In one of the chambers of Hachiman-yama-kofun

On the other hand, it is unlikely that the restorers changed anything too radically. Most likely, they still adhered to the dimensions and principles of masonry that could be traced in ancient ruins. And this allows us to conclude that the original structure was completely within the capabilities and technologies that Japanese society possessed during the already mentioned Kofun period. Even though the use of slate slabs greatly facilitated the solution to the problem of creating floors, and the size of the largest slabs was quite modest (weighing no more than one or two tons), the structure of the structure and masonry are very far from ideal.

Despite all its shortcomings, Hachiman-yama-kofun unexpectedly helped us understand one issue that belongs to the structures of a later era, but which has confused many “alternative minds” for a very long time. The fact is that medieval buildings in Japan often have masonry that is very similar in appearance to polygonal - that is, masonry not made from rectangular blocks, but from blocks that have a more complex shape of side faces with a large number of angles (hence the term "polygonal" "). Such masonry, for example, is found at the base of the walls surrounding the imperial palace in Kyoto.

Rice. 48. Masonry in Kyoto, similar to polygonal

Such masonry is externally similar to the megalithic polygonal masonry in ancient Peruvian structures, where traces of very high technologies can be traced (in many ways exceeding even modern ones). This similarity gives rise to a “ferment of minds,” forcing some to even suggest that the Japanese in the Middle Ages somehow mastered similar advanced stone processing technologies.

At Hachiman-yama-kofun there are also sections of walls with similar masonry, albeit rather carelessly assembled - with noticeable distortions and gaps between the blocks. She could be seen from inside the tomb. But here there was an opportunity to look at this masonry from the reverse side, for which it was only necessary to leave the tomb and look at it from the outside. What looks like polygonal masonry on the inside, on the outside looks more like a simple pile of mostly untreated cobblestones held together with mortar. The blocks have only one processed “front” face. And further for such masonry I will use a more correct term - “pseudopolygonal masonry”.

Rice. 49. Pseudopolygonal masonry in Hachiman-yama-kofun inside and outside

Such masonry is fundamentally different from truly polygonal megalithic not only in the size of the blocks used, but also - most importantly - in the fact that the close connection of neighboring blocks along the border of a complex shape is carried out only along the thin outer edge, and not at all along the entire thickness of the blocks, as is the case in Peruvian buildings. Moreover: Peruvian polygonal masonry performs the so-called load-bearing function, that is, it can withstand the load from all overlying layers, while pseudopolygonal masonry performs only a decorative, facing function. And if for truly polygonal masonry with the most careful adjustment of huge blocks throughout their entire thickness, highly developed stone processing technologies and non-trivial engineering approaches are required, then for pseudo-polygonal masonry nothing like this is needed - everything is quite feasible using fairly simple techniques and tools.

Rice. 50. Polygonal megalithic masonry in Cusco (Peru)

And only one question remains - where did the Japanese take an example to follow even one and a half thousand years ago (the time of the creation of Hachiman-yama-kofun? .. If from Peru, then for this they had to cross the Pacific Ocean and reach the shores of South America long before the discoveries Columba. And if not from Peru, then the closest pseudo-polygonal masonry we came across was only in the Mediterranean - in ancient buildings in Italy and Greece, which are many thousands of kilometers from Japan.

Although, of course, at the turn of our era there had long been a Silk Road and other trade routes that eventually covered all of Eurasia from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. So, at least purely theoretically, information about pseudo-polygonal masonry in the Mediterranean could well have reached the Japanese Islands...

Rice. 51. Pseudopolygonal masonry in Delphi (Greece)

A number of tombs, also dated by archaeologists to the Kofun period, are located in Park A, located between the cities of Kyoto and Nara on the island of Honshu. The park has as many as five official archaeological zones and covers an area of ​​several hectares.

It seems quite natural for such a small country as Japan that such a large area is not empty at all and in some places is quite densely built up with private houses, which are located right next to archaeological sites. However, despite the constant flow of tourists, the residents of these houses often have no idea what exactly archaeologists found literally on the site next to them. It seems that the Japanese do not suffer from excessive curiosity. As a result, in search of some ancient objects, we had to do a fair amount of circling, even though Evgeniy Shlakin, who accompanied us, speaks Japanese quite well. So, for example, it happened with the Sebuke-kofun tomb, which we managed to find not on the first attempt.

This ancient object has not yet been brought to the level of neatness and cleanliness by the Japanese that they consider necessary to allow tourists in, so the tomb is closed to the public. We were greeted by a locked gate, blocking access inside. Through the gaps between the slats of the gate one could only see that there were some sarcophagi inside.

Rice. 52. Sebuke-kofun

This situation did not suit us in any way, since in such conditions it was not possible to somehow evaluate the quality of the sarcophagi and examine the design of the tomb itself. Fortunately, there were no caretakers nearby, and the residents of the neighboring houses, almost adjacent to the hill on which the tomb stands, were not at all interested in what we were doing here. So literally after a few minutes we were able to discover under the polyethylene that covered the tomb on the side of the gate, a gap quite sufficient for a not very large person to squeeze through. Naturally, we could not help but take advantage of the opportunity presented to us to take a closer look at the ancient object.

Upon closer inspection, it turned out that the tomb was made of very carelessly processed granite blocks weighing, according to our estimates, no more than ten tons. The weight, although considerable, is not critical for manual work. However, these blocks are not laid very neatly - with very noticeable gaps between adjacent blocks.

The sarcophagi were also disappointing. Firstly, they are made of sandstone - a material that is very easily processed with the simplest and not very hard tools. And secondly, working even with such a soft material left much to be desired - planes, edges, corners and other details had clearly visible deviations from ideal execution. In addition, traces of simple hand tools were also visible in places. In general, everything again fits well with the official version of historians, who attribute the tomb to the Kofun period.

Rice. 53. Sarcophagi in Sebuk-kofun

Another tomb in the territory of Park A - Ueyama-kofun - during the period of our visit was undergoing a stage of active preparation for a massive flow of tourists and was covered with a large metal hangar, tightly blocking even the slightest view of both the contents of the tomb and itself. And on the hangar doors hung an impressive lock.

If desired, of course, this castle could also be overcome. But after what we saw in Sebuka-kofun, we had no desire to enter Ueyama-kofun in violation of the rules, since the photographs available on the Internet clearly indicated that we would only be able to see almost the same thing as in the previous tomb. Except that there is only one sarcophagus in it and it is slightly different in shape, but the material is still the same easily processed sandstone.

Rice. 54. Ueyama-kofun tomb and the sarcophagus found in it

Doubts begin

However, in Park A, not everything that historians call tombs fully corresponds to both the declared purpose and age of the ancient objects, and the level of technological development of Japanese society of the Kofun period.

One of these objects has a very funny name - Onino-Sechin, which means “Devil’s Chamber Pot”. To be more precise, these are actually two now separately lying stones, which, according to archaeologists, previously formed a single whole - a kind of dolmen, the lower part of which is a flat slab, and the upper part is a stone “bowl” that previously formed the walls and ceiling dolmen

Rice. 55. Reconstruction of the previous appearance of Onino-Setchin

The lower part (slab) is located on a small hill - where, as is believed, the entire structure as a whole was previously located. The slab is about 4.5 meters long, about 2.7 meters wide, about 1 meter high, and weighs about 25-30 tons.

The upper part of the slab is not entirely flat - it has structural recesses, which are believed to have served, among other things, to fix the upper part of the “dolmen” on it. In addition to these clearly originally intended recesses, several rows of recesses are also visible on the slab, prepared in order to split the slab into pieces using wedges inserted there. As historians suggest, they tried to split the slab in order to use the stones for the construction of one of the castles nearby.

Rice. 56. Bottom part (slab) Onino-setchin

The upper part (“bowl”) has an internal width of about one and a half meters, a height of about three meters and weighs, according to rough estimates, three to four dozen tons. It is located in an inverted position at the foot of the hill on which the lower part of Onino-setchin is located. The “bowl” was not made very carefully - there are no even corners and precisely maintained planes, but perhaps they were not required. The quality of surface treatment is quite consistent with simple manual technologies.

The two side planes, which, if we rely on the reconstruction of the original appearance of Onino-Setchina, should have rested on the lower slab, differ in level by about five centimeters. And if, being on the side of the inverted “bowl”, you gradually lower your head, then you can see that when one plane merges into a single line, the second plane of the support clearly protrudes above this line. At the same time, there is a similar difference in the side recesses on the slab on which this “bowl” supposedly stood before. This indicates that the reconstruction of the initial appearance of the object, carried out by archaeologists, is quite correct and may be correct.

Rice. 57. Upper part (“bowl”) of Onino-Setchin

And everything seems to be fine. But there is one strange nuance.

The fact is that in order for its upper part to be in its current position, provided that the initial appearance of the object was correctly reconstructed, it was necessary not only to remove it from the slab - it was also necessary to drag this “bowl” twenty meters to the edge of the hill, throw it down , and then drag it another twenty meters to the side. And this is provided that the “bowl” weighs several tens of tons.

One can, of course, assume that the upper part of the Onino-Setchchina was in its current position as a result of an earthquake, because Japan, as already mentioned, is located in a very earthquake-prone area. But then, taking into account the distances and the mass of the “bowl”, and also the fact that, thanks to its design, the “bowl” was very stable in its original position, this must have been a very strong earthquake - at the level of the maximum 10-11 points. After all, even if we assume that previously the hillside was slightly different, the “bowl” still had to somehow move horizontally to the side for a total of a good fifty meters.

But then why, during such a strong earthquake, did the tombs in the same park A, which were built from much smaller blocks and dated by historians to the same period with Onino-setchin, remain undestroyed?.. At least the same Sebuke-kofun with two sarcophagi, which we were able to examine (see earlier)…

In addition, there is a very interesting local legend about Onino-setchin. According to this legend, there lived a demon who tricked random travelers and ate them. He used the lower part of Onino-setchin - the stove - as a kind of “cutting board” for the unfortunate victims, and the upper part - the “bowl” - as an ordinary “chamber pot” into which the demon relieved himself.

Several important conclusions can be drawn from such a funny legend.

Firstly, at the time the legend appeared, the composite object had already been destroyed. After all, in its original holistic position, its parts could not be used in the way the demon supposedly used them.

Secondly, by this time the local residents clearly had no idea who created Onino-Setchin and why. As well as about who or what destroyed the original object.

And thirdly, in the legend the demon does not appear at all as the creator of Onino-setchin, but only uses its already separate parts. Moreover, he did not need to create, for example, a “chalice”, since he could relieve himself anywhere - and without this very “chalice”.

All this, albeit indirectly, indicates that the dating of archaeologists is erroneous, and Onino-Setchin is a very, very ancient object. Much older than the previously mentioned tombs of Park A. And not only was it created, but also destroyed long before the Kofun period...

I came to the exact and definite conclusion that Filonov, after crossing the border, would have to stop at a farm near Bobyleva. A. Panteleev, First feat. The fact is that She, half German, did not sign the Volkslist... V. Bogomolov, The moment of truth. , What this is Mishchenko, and not that they are “Neman”... V. Bogomolov, The moment of truth. Let us mark with the letter “Be” that, What you graduated from university and, as they say, you have some education. I. Andronikov, First time on stage.

Dictionary-reference book on punctuation. - M.: Reference and information Internet portal GRAMOTA.RU. V. V. Svintsov, V. M. Pakhomov, I. V. Filatova. 2010 .

See what “fact (that) that” is in other dictionaries:

The fact is that...- The fact is... FACT. Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

FACT- FACT, fact, husband. (lat. factum). 1. An actual event, phenomenon, something that actually happened. Historical fact. Dare to face the facts. This is fact, not fiction. “The resolution of the national question in the Soviet Union is one... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

FACT- 1. a, husband. A valid, very real event, phenomenon; what actually happened, happens, exists. The facts speak for themselves. State the facts. Check the facts. Present someone with a fait accompli. (in a situation where everything is already... ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

fact- The fact is that (colloquial) the fact is that... [under the influence of the expression the fact is that sometimes he is wrong, they say and the fact is that]. The fact is that I forgot my books at home... Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language

fact- I see fact; in zn. particles.; decomposition True, undoubtedly, truly, of course. Are we really going? Fact! And you are deeply mistaken, the fact is, you are mistaken! F., that we ourselves didn’t think of it (colloquial; it’s true, really, that...) F., that we won. The fact is that... ... Dictionary of many expressions

fact- a, m. 1) Real, very real event, phenomenon, action, case. Historical fact. Synonyms: true story (obsolete), history (colloquial), incident, episode Antonyms: you/thought... Popular dictionary of the Russian language

fact- A; m. [from lat. factum done] 1. A true event, an actual occurrence or a real phenomenon; example, case. Valid, well-known, historical f. F. Russian history. F. from whose l. life, practice. F. my biography. Reflect... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary

FACT- In the popular development, in the Russian nationalization of foreign words, historical semantic patterns can be established. Some concepts, despite the peculiar differences in their national linguistic expression, contain an international... ... History of words

Fact- Fact ♦ Fait Any event, if it is established or recorded, which cannot happen without experience. When one speaks of a “scientific fact” that is the subject of experiment or at least rigorous observation, one almost always means... Sponville's Philosophical Dictionary

Is this the tank we've been waiting for?- At one time, we had the opportunity to participate in state tests of the T 80U, T 90 tanks and the tank, which after the collapse of the Soviet Union received the name T 84 and became foreign to us. Therefore, after reading S. Roshchin’s article “The Tank That We’ve Been Waiting for”... Encyclopedia of technology

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Proof. (1) (2). If for everyone there is

Then we define a bijection as.

(2) (3). If the morphism is natural in A and B, then the following diagrams are commutative:

Diagram 8

Research of parallel computing systems.

Let us take Similarly, considering

(3) (1). For given s and e it is easy to prove that s: is a universal arrow.

Proposition 2: Let be a functor having a left adjoint. Then for every small category and functor: there is an isomorphism

Proof. We will use the fact that if there are pairs of conjugate functors

These are conjugate compositions. Note that the left conjugate of the functor is unique up to isomorphism. Consider the commutative diagram:

Diagram 9

Where. By virtue of the universality property of the functor, k is conjugate on the left. By the definition of a limit, there is an isomorphism. Therefore, it is conjugate to the left to. Thus,

Composition of conjugate functors

The product of two successive conjugations is a conjugation in the following sense:

Theorem 1: Let two conjugations be given:

Then the products of functors determine the conjugation:

Proof. In relation to hom-sets, these two conjugations determine the following isomorphism, natural in

It means that the product of functors is conjugate on the left with. Let us put and apply these two isomorphisms to the unit arrow 1: . Then the unit of the product of conjugates is equal to, as stated.

Double reasoning shows that the co-unit is equal. One can directly verify that the latter formulas define natural transformations that satisfy the triangular identities.

Using such multiplication, it is possible to form a category whose objects are all (small) categories X, A, D,..., and the arrows are conjugations with the introduced multiplication; the unit arrow for each category A is the identical conjugation

This category also has an additive structure. Each hom-set can be considered as a category - namely, as a category of conjugations between X and A. Its objects are the indicated conjugations, and its arrows are conjugate pairs with vertical multiplication.

Let two conjugate pairs be given

Then the (horizontal) products of natural transformations determine the conjugate pair of natural transformations that correspond to the products of conjugates.

The proof can be expressed as a hom-set diagram

The horizontal multiplication operation is actually a bifunctor

This means that Adj is a two-dimensional category.

Caen expansion

Let be a functor between small categories, and be an arbitrary category. Consider a functor acting on objects as, on morphisms - The left conjugate to is called the left Cahn extension and is denoted. The right conjugate of k is called the right Cahn extension.