Section 1. Introduction

1. Semiotics as a science. Object and subject of semiotics. Key semiotic concepts.

2. Main problems of semiotics. The problem of the sign from the point of view different areas scientific knowledge. Facts that semiotics studies.

Keywords

Semiotics, object and subject of semiotics, sign, sign systems, natural sign systems, linear sign systems, open sign systems, closed sign systems, spontaneously created sign systems, operational sign systems, semiotic code, semiotic model, sign situation.

Competency requirements:

- know and understand the object and subject of semiotics, be able to use the acquired knowledge in professional activities;

- be able to systematically present key concepts of semiotics;

- know how the sign problem is solved from the points of view of different fields of science.

§ 1

When we come across the name of a science, it usually tells us something. What does the word “semiotics” tell us?

When starting to study semiotics, you need to keep in mind that this term has several meanings.

Semiotics (from Greek sēmėion - sign, sign):

1) science that studies the properties of signs and sign systems V human society(mostly natural and artificial languages, as well as some cultural phenomena), nature (communication in the animal world) or in man himself (visual and auditory perception, etc.);

2) the science of symptoms in medicine.

Ferdinand de Saussure called this science “semiology”. This term long time existed in French-speaking countries as a parallel to semiotics, but since the 70s. XX century Roland Barthes proposed to distinguish between these concepts.

To prove the independence or lack of independence of a scientific discipline, it is necessary to consider the object and subject of its study.

Object of semiotics – signs and systems of signs: for example, natural and artificial languages, metalanguages ​​(languages ​​of science), proto-languages ​​(languages ​​of animals), secondary languages ​​(languages ​​of culture, art), “body language” (language of gestures, facial expressions), language of flowers, language of tattoos etc.

Subject studying semiotics are patterns, trends, features of the emergence and functioning of signs and sign systems in sign behavior (i.e. using signs) and sign communication.

Key concepts of semiotics: sign, sign system, semiotic code, semiotic model, sign situation.

Sign – it is a material object used to convey information.

In other words, everything with which we can and want to communicate something to each other is sign . For example, smoke above a chimney indicates that a stove or fireplace is burning. At the same time, smoke escaping from the window is a trace of a fire.

In order for an object (or event) to receive the function of a sign, to begin to mean something, a person must first agree with another person, the recipient of this sign. Otherwise, the recipient may simply not understand that there is a sign in front of him. For example, a flower on a window can be either just a decorative element (this is not a sign), or a signal “turnout failed” (this is already a sign).

According to A. Solomonik, sign – someone or something that indicates something other than itself. A sign is a sign that depicts, designates, records or encodes this something (its referent or designated) in the human consciousness (interpreter). A sign not only denotes its referent, but also describes (characterizes) it, and also acts instead as its permanent representative when processed in various sign systems.

Under designated (referent) understood - that which is denoted by a sign.

Interpreter - a person who perceives signs and sign systems. To understand the content of a sign, correlate it with the referent and process it according to the rules of the system, it is precisely human consciousness. Any event or object can be perceived as a sign, but this requires an interpreter.

The choice of sign form is often determined by the intentions of the person conveying the message and the capabilities at his disposal. When encoding a message, its author is forced to follow the rules provided to him by the sign system within which he operates. A person can declare his love in words, but he can arrange a concert for his chosen one under the windows, send her flowers, or find another option for significant opportunities. If a person uses Morse code, then he uses the signs of this alphabet, taking into account all their parameters: the accepted form of the sign, its place among other signs of the system, all its syntactic and hierarchical characteristics, etc. Thus, the first letter of a new word must be separated from the previously transmitted one words, which is indicated by the corresponding pause and sign, and in ordinary writing - by the interval between words. The initial letter of a Russian sentence is always capitalized, the paragraph is written on a new line and is highlighted by indentation, etc. All this affects the form of the sign used and must be taken into account for the correct composition and transmission of the message.

By what it denotes (its referent from the real world);

Its reflection in the brain of the individual using this sign;

Its reflection in the treasury of human experience and its place in the corresponding sign system.

In the content of the sign, two components should be distinguished: denotation And connotation (from English words to denote - “display”, “show” and connote - “transfer”, “mean”). Each sign contains information about what kind of referent is depicted in the sign (the denotational part of the sign) and what are the characteristics of this referent (the connotational component of the sign). These two parts are present differently in the signs different levels abstractions, the connections of these two parts in signs of different levels are also different.

Under sign system understand a collection of signs interconnected various types connections. A sign system is created to process the signs included in it according to certain algorithms specified in the metalanguage of the system.

Depending on the basis of classification, sign systems can be divided as follows (according to A. Solomonik):

1) according to the degree of abstraction of the sign:

Natural;

Figurative;

Language;

Recording systems;

Formalized systems with fixed characters;

Formalized systems with variable symbols;

2) according to the construction method:

Built linearly (sequentially);

Divided into periodically repeating rows;

Folding out various groups characters with special algorithms for their processing;

3) by openness (closedness):

Open;

Closed;

4) according to the method of creation:

Sign systems that arose spontaneously;

Created according to a pre-conceived plan;

5) by scope of application:

Accepted as languages ​​for data processing (text codes);

Systems created for this specific case.

So, natural sign systems – systems, the basic sign of which is the phenomena themselves or their parts. An example of such systems is rules traffic; symptoms of a particular disease, etc.

Periodically constructed sign systems - systems with a matrix structure. When constructing such systems, they use at least two structural parameters, as in periodic table chemical elements. Along with periodic ones, there are linearly constructed sign systems and systems that collect various groups of signs in a single field, each of which is processed according to its own algorithms.

Linear sign systems – a single consistent set of characters, for example, alphabet, directory, etc.

Open sign systems – systems that are initially predisposed to adding or abbreviating signs. For example, a telephone directory can always be expanded or shortened.

Closed sign systems – systems that have a strictly defined number of characters. For example, the modern Russian alphabet has only 33 letters.

Spontaneously created sign systems - systems that arose spontaneously, spontaneously, and not according to a pre-thought-out plan. The task of scientists involved in organizing such systems is to bring them into conformity with the metalanguage of the system that emerges later.

Operating sign systems - systems created for a specific case. Examples include labels on goods, instructions for carrying out business operations, etc. Their algorithms depend both on the specific ontological situation and on the signs used in them.

Algorithm in semiotics - a system of rules that determines the content and sequence of actions for processing signs (groups of signs) encoding related objects or phenomena. The system may have several algorithms for different groups signs, as in the Rules of the Road. One of the main characteristics of the algorithm is the degree of its rigidity: the more abstract the system, the stricter the encodings of the rules for processing characters become. In the systems themselves high degree Abstract algorithms take the form of formulas.

Semiotic code has three meanings:

1) Any semiotic system that is a text code (language code, mathematical code, etc.).

2) Only a mathematical code system, that is, a system of the highest degree of abstraction.

3) Systems of secret ciphers, which are specially served by signs incomprehensible to the uninitiated.

Sign model - a visual representation of the sign in its various connections and relationships. There are three main types of sign models:

1) the model of an individual sign shows its connections with the signified and with the reflection of the latter in the mind of the interpreter;

2) the model of a sign in a sign system includes the relationship of signs among themselves in the context of the system composed of them;

3) the model of a sign in semiotic reality reflects the place of the sign and the sign system in the general collection of semiotic results obtained throughout human history.

The situation of using a sign is called significant situation. Identification by signs (semiosis) - the process as a result of which a sign appears. This process is connected, on the one hand, with ontological reality, and on the other, with the ideal world of our consciousness. As a result, semiotic reality appears.

§ 2

The main problems of semiotics: semiotics does not study specific signs in specific sign situations. It defines the concept of a sign in general, establishes types of signs, describes typical sign situations, the most general methods use of signs, etc. Semiotics is interested in the general problem of the sign as a comprehensive concept in relation to individual subclasses of signs.

On the one hand, without strict concepts of sign, language, etc., created by semiotics, a deep analysis of specific facts related to the field of a particular science is impossible. On the other hand, taking into account the data of various specific sciences, semiotics formulates on their basis general laws related to signs. Semiotics does not summarize, but generalizes.

Semiotic reality is a reality that exists in the form of signs and sign systems. It is studied by semiotics on the basis of the achievements of all other sciences. It is as material as ontological reality, and is opposed to the ideal, mental constructions of our consciousness (concepts).

Signs play a primary role in the lives of animals and humans. Without the use of signs, none of this would be possible. various shapes animal behavior, nor the practical and theoretical activities of humans. When we greet someone, we say “hello,” nod our heads, and extend our hand to shake. A scout bee, having found a field with flowering plants, upon returning, describes eights in front of its relatives: the number of eights and their elongation will indicate both the direction and distance to the field. Everyone knows the signs of friendliness of dogs and cats.

The activity of computers and other computers is entirely reduced to the transformation of one group of signs into another according to a given program. It is not surprising, therefore, that signs are the subject of analysis in many sciences: linguistics, psychology, logic, pathopsychology, biology, cybernetics, sociology, etc.

However, each of the sciences examines the sign and its use from a certain angle.

Linguistics is mainly interested in linguistic signs.

Psychology clarifies the peculiarities of the functioning of signs in animals, traces the emergence and development of sign situations in a child, and raises the question of the relationship between sign activity and other mental functions.

Mathematical logic takes into account only the role of signs in the construction of special systems with the help of which it studies logical laws.

None of the sciences covers the problem of the sign as a whole.

In addition, within each branch of scientific knowledge, its own interpretations of signification are possible. As G. Vetrov notes: “The diversity of the proposed definitions is striking. For example, every student of linguistics is struck by the many definitions of language by different linguists. For some, language is a system of concepts about linguistic activity, knowledge, science; for others, on the contrary, it is not knowledge, but a set of language skills, in accordance with which we use and create language products; for others – a set of acts speech activity; for the fourth - a set of statements, a set of sentences (finite or infinite). At the same time, in specific definitions that implement this or that understanding of the nature of language, a wide variety of characteristics are indicated. Thus, K. Bühler defines language through four features (the versatility of language as an organon, its multi-stage nature as a set of signs, etc.), K. Pike resorts to the concept of a system of morphemes, A. Martinet - to the concept of monemes and phonemes, L. Hjelmslev - to the concept of structure, V. Pisani - to the concept of the isogloss system, A. Schleicher and others base the definition of language on its relationship to thought, Hartung and Vater - on its communicative function, S. Potter, as well as B. Block and J. Treger refer to concepts communicative function and arbitrary vocal symbols, P. Ering - on the concepts of classes of signs and classes of meaning, L. Zavadovsky - on the concept of a grammatical and universal semantic system, Pos, G. Stern and others use the concepts of a system of words and rules for their combination, etc. and etc.”

Semiotics is precisely designed to eliminate the existing discrepancy in concepts. Summarizing the data of many sciences, it must develop precise, unambiguous definitions that could be used equally by a linguist, a psychologist, and a logician, i.e. representative of any science.

Semiotics(semiology) is a scientific discipline that studies the general structure and functioning of various linguistic sign systems, that is, semiotic subsystems that store and transmit information.

Semiotics- the science of signs and sign systems. This interdisciplinary science arose at the intersection of linguistics, information theory, psychology, biology, literature, and sociology.

Semiotics originated in late XIX- beginning of the 20th century. The founders of semiotics are the American philosopher and logician Charles Sanders Pierce (1839-1914) and Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913). It is usually believed that it was to Peirce, who so loved to create new terms, that we owe the term “semiotics” (although in fact this term was coined by Locke , in the last lines of his Essay on Human Understanding). Saussure gave the new science the name “semiology,” which became more widespread in theoretical linguistics.

Semiotic systems operate in:

1) human society (language and some cultural phenomena - customs, rituals);

2) nature (communication in the animal world);

3) person (visual and auditory perception of objects).

Semiotics happens:

- humanitarian (language and literature);

- formal (logical-mathematical, applied computer).

Works of fiction can be studied along 2 lines:

As an object of specifically historical and literary and historical-literary analysis;

As an object of semiotic analysis (the language of fiction).

Basic The body of humanitarian semiotics consists of 2 sets of concepts :

1) semiotic patterns

2) semiotic division

TO semiotic patterns relate:

- opposition of all basic elements of the linguistic semiotic system , i.e. phonemes, morphemes, words, sentence types and intonation.

The oppositions of these elements reveal differential features (for example: “drink” and “beat” - differentiation of deafness and voicedness). The research procedure by substitution is called commutation.

- isomorphism – structural similarity between the form of expression and the form of content (for example: the strength of sound corresponds to the strength of emotions).

Exists 3 semiotic divisions (proposed by Charles William Morris) :

- syntactics – relationships between signs, mainly in the speech chain;

- semantics – the relationship between the bearer sign, the subject of designation and the concept of the subject;

- pragmatics – the relationship between signs and those who use them. Two centers are examined: the subject of speech and the addressee.

* Semiology of F. de Saussure

Ferdinand de Saussure defines the semiology he creates as “the science that studies the life of signs within the framework of the life of society.” “She must reveal to us what signs are and by what laws they are governed.”

One of the main provisions of F. de Saussure's theory is the distinction between language and speech. Language (la langue) Saussure called a set of means common to all speakers used in constructing phrases in a given language; speech (la parole) - specific statements of individual native speakers.

A linguistic sign consists of a signifier (acoustic image) and a signified (concept). Saussure compares language to a sheet of paper. Thought is its front side, sound is its back; You can't cut the front side without cutting the back side too. Thus, at the heart of Saussure's idea of ​​the sign and his concept as a whole is the signifier-signified dichotomy.

Language is a system of meanings. Meaning is what the signified represents to the signifier; the significance of a sign arises from its relationships with other signs of language. If we use the comparison of a sign with a sheet of paper, then the meaning should be correlated with the relationship between the front and back sides of the sheet, and the significance should be correlated with the relationship between several sheets.

There are two types of meanings based on two types of relationships and differences between the elements of the language system. These are syntagmatic and associative relationships. Syntagmatic relations are relations between linguistic units that follow one another in the flow of speech, that is, relations within a number of linguistic units existing in time. Such combinations of linguistic units are called syntagms. Associative relations exist outside the speech process, outside time. These are relations of community, similarity between linguistic units in meaning and sound, or only in meaning, or only in sound in one way or another.

Semiotics of C. S. Peirce

Charles Sanders Peirce tried to characterize a number of important semiotic concepts (the concept of a sign, its meaning, sign relationship, etc.). He was clearly aware that this area of ​​research should be the subject of a special science - semiotics, which he defined as the study of the nature and main types of sign processes.

In particular, Peirce created a classification of signs that is basic for semiotics:

1) sign-icons (icon, from the Greek eikon - “image”), pictorial signs in which the signified and the signified are related to each other in similarity. For example, a sign that warns drivers against driving fast near schools and kindergartens depicts two children;

2) index signs (lat. index - " forefinger"), in which the signified and the signifier are related to each other by location in time and/or space. The most obvious example of such a sign is a road sign, which gives travelers information about the name of the nearest settlement(for example, Vasyuki) and the direction in which you need to go to get to Vasyuki. Facial expression - for example, wrinkled eyebrows - is also an index sign, because it “points” to emotional condition human: anger;

3) signs-symbols (symbol), in which the signified and the signified are interconnected within the framework of some convention, that is, as if by prior agreement. For example, road sign, which depicts an “inverted” triangle, has no natural connection with the shape and meaning of “give way.” National flags are also examples of such conventions. Symbols include all words of all languages, with the exception of imitative words.

Semiotics- science of signs and general properties sign systems. The term "semiotics" was used in English. philosopher John Locke (17th century) in his work “An Essay Concerning the Human Mind.” In ancient times, the term was found among the Stoics and in ancient Greek medical treatises (diagnosis and prognosis were considered as sign processes).

History of the development of semiotics:

1) Plato (5-4 centuries BC) - considered the type of connection between a name and a thing (work “Cratylus”). 2) Aristotle (4th century BC). Aristotle outlines the threefold nature of the connection between a sign: sound combinations → movement of the soul → real actions. 3) Augustine the Blessed (5th century) - considered the two-sidedness of the sign, used Latin terms: 4) Ockham, William (14th century, England): . analyzed the type of connection between a name (sign) and a thing (substituted object); . He justified the conditional nature of this connection (only individual things really exist. 4) Humboldt, Wilhelm von (18-19 centuries, Germany): “There is an obvious connection between sound and meaning, which ... usually remains unclear.”

5) Peirce, Charles Sanders (late 19th century, USA) - founder of semiotics:. Definition of sign (1), . Classification of signs (2), . Basic law of semiotics (3). Charles Sanders Peirce (10.09.1839-19.04.1914, USA) → Founder of semiotics Work “On a new list of categories”, 1867. Charles Pierce's concept: 1. Definition of a sign: “a sign is something that acts for someone (interpreter) as a representative of something (object) due to some feature or property” - the threefold nature of the connection of a sign has been discovered; 2. Classification of signs - according to three aspects (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic). He identified 9 types of signs: - syntactic aspect: quality signs, object signs, regularity signs; - semantic aspect: icon signs, index signs, symbol signs; - pragmatic aspect: predicate signs, proposition signs, judgment signs .

The most well-known classification of signs is based on the second, semantic aspect:. Iconic signs - based on the similarity of the signified and the signified (photos, sculptures); . Indexical signs - based on the contiguity of the signified and the signifier (smoke/fire); . Symbolic signs- have a conditional nature of the connection between the signified and the signifier (mathematical signs: +, :, =); 3. Basic law of semiotics: Sign to sign - the meaning of a sign is revealed through its connection with other signs. 6) Ferdinand de Saussure: Founder of linguosemiotics(Work “Course of General Linguistics”, published 1916): described the most important properties linguistic sign (two-sided nature, arbitrariness, linearity).

Concept of F. de Saussure: 1. The two-sided nature of a linguistic sign - the presence of two components in the sign: a signifier (acoustic image) and a signified (concept); 2. The arbitrariness of a linguistic sign is its lack of motivation, the conditional nature of the connection between the signified and the signifier (machine →p = no natural connection). 3. Linearity of a linguistic sign - the extent of the sign in time (in spoken speech): nose - car - natural science. 7) Charles William Morris- one of the founders of semiotics (Work “Foundations of the Theory of Signs”, 1938): . described the process of semiosis (signification), identified its components (sign, designatum, interpretant, interpreter); . identified the components of semiotics (semantics, syntactics, pragmatics). The process of semiosis (according to Charles Morris).

Semiosis is a process of signification in which 4 components interact: 1. Sign means - the material shell of the sign (trace on the border strip); 2. Designatum - an object (situation) to which a sign (violator; a boundary has been violated) points; 3. Interpretant - reaction to a sign (sound an alarm; disguise a trace...); 4. Interpreter - a person who perceives and reacts to the sign (border guard; accomplice of the violator...). Syntactic relations- relationships between signs. Components of semiotics: a) Semantics (object) - a section of semiotics that studies the relationship between a sign and an object (semantic relations), b) Pragmatics (person) - a section of semiotics that studies the relationship between a sign and an interpreter (relationship pragmat), c) Syntactics (another sign) - a section of semiotics that studies the relationships between signs (syntactic relationships).

It appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. and from the very beginning it was a metascience, a special kind of superstructure over a whole series of sciences operating with the concept of a sign. Interests semiotics extend to human communication, animal communication, information and social processes, the functioning and development of culture, all types of art (including fiction) and much more.

The idea of ​​creating a science of signs arose almost simultaneously and independently among several scientists. Founder semiotics considered an American logician, philosopher and natural scientist C. Pierce(1839-1914), who suggested its name. C. Pierce gave a definition of a sign, a classification of signs (indices, icons, symbols), established the tasks and framework of a new science.

This classification is based on the typology of the relationship between the form of content.

So, icons(or iconic signs) are necks whose shape and content are similar qualitatively or structurally.

Indices(or indexical signs) are signs whose form and content are adjacent in space or time.

Symbols(or) are signs for which the connection between form and content is established arbitrarily, according to an agreement relating specifically to this particular sign.

Despite the general idea of ​​the need to create science of signs, ideas about its essence varied significantly; measures C. Pierce represented it as a “universal algebra of knowledge”, i.e. rather like a branch of mathematics. Saussure He spoke about semiology as a psychological science, a kind of superstructure, in general, above the humanities.

Read also: Empirical research.

Semiotics is divided into three main areas: syntactics(or syntax), semantics And pragmatist.

Syntactics studies the relationships between signs and their components ( we're talking about primarily about signifiers). Semantics studies the relationship between the signifier and the signified. Pragmatics studies the relationship between a sign and its users.

Other key concept semiotics - sign process, or semiosis. Semiosis is defined as a certain situation that includes a certain set of components. Semiosis is based on the intention of person A to convey message C to person B. Person A is called the sender of the message, person B is its recipient, or addressee. The sender selects the medium D (or communication channel) over which the message and code D will be transmitted.

Code D, in particular, specifies the correspondence between the signified and the signifier, i.e. specifies a set of characters. The code must be chosen in such a way that the required message can be composed using the appropriate signifiers. The environment and the signifiers of the code must also fit together. The code must be known to the recipient, and the environment and signifiers must be accessible to his perception.

Read also: Christianity is the oldest brand

Thus, perceiving the signifiers sent by the sender, the recipient, using a code, translates them into signifieds and thereby receives the message. A special case of semiosis is speech communication (or speech act), and a special case of code is natural language. Then the sender is called the speaker, the receiver is called the listener, or also the addressee, and the signs are called linguistic signs. Code (and language as well) is a system that includes the structure of signs and the rules for its operation. The structure, in turn, consists of the signs themselves and the relationships between them (sometimes they also talk about the rules of combination).

In fact, the sign has two sides that cannot be separated from each other. One side is what the sign designates (signified, content), and the second is what it is designated by (signifier, form). The product is also a sign. Its form is what can be perceived by the senses (taste, color, smell, size, weight, etc.), and the content includes all those signs (significates) that are important for this product (function, purpose, price, evidence of quality, impression of the product, etc.).

Application development

• Creation of artificial languages ​​that make it possible to conveniently algorithmize information processing processes (for example, programming languages, languages ​​for indexing documents, recording scientific and technical facts, etc.).
• Creation of algorithms that provide processing of texts in natural language (machine translation, automatic indexing and abstracting, translation from natural language into formal language and so on.).
• Issues of design and compilation of cartographic images.

Story

Background

History of semiotics as a science

Semiotics arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The founders of semiotics are the American philosopher and logician Charles Sanders Peirce ( Charles Sanders Peirce, 1839-1914) and the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure ( Ferdinand de Saussure, 1857-1913). It is usually believed that it was to Peirce, who so loved to create new terms, that we owe the term “semiotics” (although in fact this term was proposed by Locke, in the last lines of his Essay Concerning Human Understanding). Saussure gave the new science the name “semiology,” which became more widespread in theoretical linguistics.

Peirce's publications covered the period from 1867 to the end of his life, but they were small in volume, infrequent and usually inaccessible; Peirce never managed to complete any of the large books he conceived, and his ideas became widespread only in the 1930s , when his archives were published. Saussure wrote nothing at all on this topic (except for scattered notes that were found and published only in the second half of the 20th century), and his ideas became known thanks to the posthumous (in 1916) publication of notes from courses of lectures he gave and subsequently edited by his students.

One of the first who took up the development of the basic concepts of semiotics was the German logician and philosopher Gottlob Frege (1848-1925), and although, unlike Peirce and Saussure, he did not create a detailed concept, several of his articles (“On Sense” and meaning" (1892), "Thought: a logical study"), dedicated to semiotics, are classic. Among the first researchers of the problems of semiotics was the German philosopher, creator of phenomenology Edmund Husserl; the second volume of his Logical Investigations, published in 1901, is largely devoted to these issues.

Semiology of F. de Saussure

Main article: General linguistics course

One of the main provisions of F. de Saussure's theory is the distinction between language and speech. Tongue ( la langue) Saussure called a set of means common to all speakers used in constructing phrases in a given language; speech ( la parole) - specific statements of individual native speakers.

A linguistic sign consists of a signifier (acoustic image) and a signified (concept). Saussure compares language to a sheet of paper. Thought is its front side, sound is its back; You can't cut the front side without cutting the back side too. Thus, Saussure's idea of ​​the sign and his concept as a whole is based on dichotomy signifier-signified.

Semiotics began to be considered as a science relatively recently. In August 1995, in Monterey (California, USA), at a conference on intelligently controlled systems, a symposium was held on applied semiotics.

see also

Notes

Bibliography

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Synonyms

See what “Semiotics” is in other dictionaries: - (semiology) (from the Greek sign) the science of signs and sign systems, sign behavior (using signs) and sign linguistics. and non-linguistic communications. Modern S. received its initial impulses in the works of Amer. philosopher Ch.... ...

Encyclopedia of Cultural Studies - (from the Greek semeiot sign) general theory sign systems, studying the properties of sign complexes of various natures. Such systems include natural languages, written and oral, various artificial languages, starting with formalized ones...