As a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, severe damage was caused to material and cultural values. A sharp increase in the disunity of Russian lands from the mid-13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of Horde rule in Rus', the construction of stone buildings temporarily ceased.

THE ART OF A WHOLE NUMBER OF ARTISTIC CRAFTS WAS LOST.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, local centers of chronicle writing were formed, as well as literary art schools. During the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some of these traditions were preserved, which created the basis for a future cultural upsurge by the end of the 14th century. In addition, the struggle for state integrity and independence brought together the cultures of different lands, as well as the culture of the elite and the people. Despite the fact that many cultural works perished, many appeared.

By joining the system of world trade relations through Golden Horde, Rus' adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, the technology of manufacturing various objects, architectural achievements and general cultural ones.

On the other hand, the Mongol-Tatar invasion influenced the rise of Moscow as the center of the unification of Rus'. And gradually the all-Russian culture began to form on the basis of the culture of Vladimir Rus.

CHRONICLES

Starting from the second half of the 13th century, chronicle writing was gradually restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers remained the Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, and from about 1250 Vladimir. New centers are also appearing: Moscow and Tver.

From the second half of the 14th century, the compilation of chronicles and handwritten books is experiencing significant growth. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition with its ideas of unifying the lands around Moscow. The Moscow chronicle tradition has reached us as part of the Trinity Chronicle from the beginning of the 15th century and, unlike local chronicles, is the first since Ancient Rus' a code of all-Russian character, here the right of the princes of Moscow to be the head of Rus' is substantiated.

> In the middle of the 15th century, a brief world history appeared - the chronograph.

ORAL FOLK ART OF Rus'

At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, became oral folk art: epics, songs, tales, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and the world around them.

First cycle of epics is a revision and reworking of the old cycle of epics about the Kyiv state.

Second cycle of epics- Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in defending the city from enemies.

> The main characters are Sadko and Vasily Buslaevich.

Other genres appear in the 14th century and are devoted to understanding Mongol conquest. Stories-legends: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the blossoming of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, as well as about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Mother of God from the Mongol armies. Some of the works of this cycle were included in chronicles.

LITERATURE OF Rus'

In the tradition of lament it is written “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land”(only the first part has survived). The ideas of national liberation and patriotism are also reflected in works dedicated to the northwestern borders of the Russian land: "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". A whole series hagiographic works dedicated to the princes who died in the horde. This Life of Mikhail Chernigovsky. The princes are presented in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and Rus'.

Military story Zadonshchina, believed to have been compiled by Saphonius of Ryazan, modeled after a word about Igor's campaign.

> From here the images were borrowed, literary style, individual turns, expressions. It does not report on a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings about what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo.

This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in victory and glorifies Moscow as the state center of Rus'. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language.

In the genre of secular literature written Sailing across three seas Afanasy Nikitina. This is one of the few secular works, preserved in Rus'. It retells impressions from travel to India and many eastern countries. This is a travel diary.

THE BEGINNING OF BOOK PRINTING IN Rus'

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian nation.

> A language has emerged that differs from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant.

With education centralized state, the need for literate, educated people has increased.

> In 1563, the state printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. First published book - Apostle. The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church.

IN 1574 THE FIRST RUSSIAN ABC was PUBLISHED IN LVIV.

GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF Rus' IN THE 16TH CENTURY.

The reforms of the Elected Rada under Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the centralization of the state. General political thought Rus' reflected several trends on issues of the relationship between power and individual segments of the population called upon to support it. Either the royal power had to fight the boyars, or the boyars had to be its main support.

Ivan Peresvetov (Russian) y nobleman) was part of the embassy order. In his petitions, he expressed his program of action. In an allegorical form, he showed that the support of the state is service people. Their position in the service should be determined not by origin, but by personal merit. The main vices that led to the death of the state were the dominance of nobles, their unjust trials and indifference to the affairs of the state. In its allegorical form, the theme associated with the fall of Byzantium actively flashes.

> Ivan Peresvetov called for pushing the boyars out of power and bringing those people who were truly interested in military service closer to the tsar.

A different position was expressed by Prince Kurbsky (one of the leaders of the Elected Rada). He defended the point of view that best people The Russians must help her. The period of persecution of the boyars coincided with the period of failures of Rus'. That is why Kurbsky left the country, since the boyars were treated incorrectly here.

IVAN THE TERRIBLE LOVED AND RESPECTED THIS MAN VERY MUCH, SO HE WAS PAINFUL WITH HIS DEPARTURE.

They corresponded for a long time. Ivan the Terrible wrote to Kurbsky that boyar rule was negative, since he himself experienced this as a child. The king also wrote that in his actions he obeys the divine will.

> Ivan 4 equated Kurbsky's departure to high treason (for the first time).

“The Tsar’s Silence” (Ivan the Terrible), artist Pavel Ryzhenko

DOMOSTROY

Due to the fact that it was necessary to raise the prestige of the new state, official literature was created, which regulated spiritual, legal and daily life people. Largest work of that century was written by Metropolitan Macarius - Great Menaion of Cheti

> The Great Menaion of the Metropolitan of All Rus' Macarius (1481/82-31.XII. 1563) is a book collection of 12 handwritten books, making up an annual “reading circle” for almost every day, each of the 12 Menaion contains material for one of the months (starting from September). According to the plan of the initiator, organizer of correspondence and editor of this book collection, Macarius, 12 folios of enormous volume and size were to contain “all the holy books of the Chetya”, revered and read in Rus', thanks to which the Great Menaion of the Chetya became a kind of encyclopedia of Russian book literature of the 16th century.

Domostroy- a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, which is a collection of rules, advice and instructions in all areas of human and family life, including public, family, economic and religious issues. It is best known in the mid-16th century edition attributed to Archpriest Sylvester.

> Although Domostroy was a collection of tips on housekeeping, it was written artistic language and became literary monument era.

PAINTING OF Rus'

Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th - 15th centuries. In modern literature this period is assessed as Russian revival. At this time, a series of wonderful painters were working in Rus'.

> At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, a person who came from Byzantium worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod painter Feofan the Greek.

He perfectly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already formed Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, his icons convey spiritual tension. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).

> The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrey Rublev.

He is a master of laconic but very expressive composition. An amazing picturesque color is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time, he was able to convey the subtle emotional experiences of the characters. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and the prokhor from Gorodets, and painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420).

HIS BRUSH BELONGED A MASTERPIECE OF WORLD PAINTING—THE ICON OF THE TRINITY.

"Trinity". 1411 or 1425-27, State Tretyakov Gallery

The image reflects biblical story, when the forefather Abraham received at home three travelers sent by God who brought him news of the impending birth of his son. The first images of three angels at a table appeared in Byzantium in the 14th century, and were called Philoxenia (Greek - “hospitality”) of Abraham.

One of the first who breathed a new Eucharistic meaning into this icon was the Russian icon painter, Saint Andrei Rublev. He depicted the Three Angels as three hypostases of God. The middle Angel symbolizes the Son of God - Jesus Christ, the left - God the Father, the right Angel - God - the Holy Spirit (the basis for this interpretation of the icon is in the clothing and arrangement of the Angels), however, the identical appearance of the Faces shows that the Holy Trinity is a single and indivisible Whole. Before the Angels stands a cup - a symbol of Christ’s sacrifice for our sins.

> At the end of the 15th century, a huge contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the outstanding icon painter Dionysius. He was an excellent calorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir as well as other students, he created frescoes by Uspensky Kremlin Cathedral.

Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in strength.

At the same time, the Novgorod Icon Painting School is also functioning. It is distinguished by its bright colors and dynamic composition.

ARCHITECTURE OF Rus'

In the 14th-16th centuries, due to the centralization of the state, Moscow was decorated (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed).

UNDER DMITRY DONSKY, A WHITE STONE KREMLIN WAS CONSTRUCTED FOR THE FIRST TIME.

During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches are being restored. Thanks to additions and reconstructions, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

On the advice of Sophia Paleolog (grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible), masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Floravanti traveled to Vladimir and examined the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479, he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a granite chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.

> The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Rus'.

Masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow. That is, its own architectural style appears.

Since the 14th century The revival of Russian culture begins, due to the liberation of Russian lands from the Horde yoke, the formation of the Russian centralized state and the success of economic development. Gradually, an all-Russian culture begins to take shape.

Literature

In the XIV-XV centuries. Most of the chronicles are compiled in Moscow monasteries, the Gospels are being rewritten, lives of saints, teachings. Development and strengthening Russian state was accompanied by a strengthening of the position of the church in all spheres of spiritual life. In the 16th century The ideological activities of the church acquired a wide scope. The Church launched a fight against all kinds of dissent and established strict regulation of all spiritual life. The Church monitored the correct understanding of the teachings of Christ and cruelly punished freethinkers and heretics.

Painting

Russian painting in the XIV-XV centuries. reached unprecedented prosperity. Man and his spiritual world - central theme Russian painting.

Was a great artist Feofan the Greek, who came from Byzantium in the 70s of the 14th century. to Novgorod. Only the Deesis icons in the Annunciation Cathedral have survived to our time.

Andrey Rublev- the most famous and revered master of the Moscow school of icon painting, book and monumental painting of the 15th century. Rublev created his masterpiece - the icon “The Life-Giving Trinity” (Tretyakov Gallery).

Dionysius- leading Moscow icon painter of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. He is considered a successor to the traditions of Andrei Rublev. Most famous works Dionysius - wall paintings and iconostasis of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary Ferapontov Monastery, made by the master together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir.

Also, the XIV-XV century became the period of development of book miniatures.

Book business

Centers for literacy and education in the 16th century. There were monasteries and churches where schools were created, and there were libraries of handwritten and printed books. Until the middle of the 16th century. All books in Rus' were written by hand. WITH 1553 Russian book printing begins. IN April 1564 clerk Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian dated printed book “Apostle” (about the activities of Christ’s disciples). This was followed by the Book of Hours and other books, which were distinguished by a high level of printing.

Architecture

IN 1485 The construction of new Kremlin walls and towers began. Civil engineering is developing, a number of buildings - chambers - are being built in the Kremlin, the most famous of which is the Faceted Chamber (1487-1496). The most famous architectural monument of this period is St. Basil's Cathedral, the construction of which continued in 1554-1560.

13. “Time of Troubles” at the beginning of the 17th century.

Time of Troubles (1598-1613) in the history of the Fatherland is characterized by weakness state power and disobedience of the outskirts to the center, imposture, civil war and intervention, “the great ruin of the Moscow state.”

Causes of the Troubles: 1. the Rurik family was interrupted 2. beginning of the 17th century was a disaster for Russia (hunger, general discontent, people begin to leave their native villages to travel around the country) 3. oprichnina, which showed the people their lack of rights in the face of arbitrary power

After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible (1584) inherited the throne his son Fedor (1584-1598)- a person incapable of ruling. All power was in the hands of his brother-in-law, Boris Godunov.

The beginning of the Troubles was marked by the death of Ivan the Terrible's son Dmitry. After the death of Feodor, Boris Godunov was elected Tsar by the Zemsky Sobor. With his death, the Rurik dynasty on the Moscow throne ended.

IN 1601 - an impostor is declared in Poland False Dmitry (Grigory Otrepiev), posing as the son of Ivan the Terrible.

IN 1605 The boyars, having betrayed Boris (his death), swore allegiance to False Dmitry, who began to reign.

IN 1606 During the uprising, False Dmitry was killed. On the throne Vasily Shuisky. The strengthening of serfdom, instability and arbitrariness of the feudal lords caused an uprising of peasants and serfs.

1606 -the first peasant war. Main reasons: the process of enslavement, instability and turmoil in power structures. Ivan Bolotnikov-the head of the uprising of peasants and serfs from Putivl moved to Moscow.

Summer 1607., when Ivan Bolotnikov’s army was besieging Tula, a second impostor appeared in Starodub, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry ( False Dmitry II). False Dmitry II achieved some success.

IN June 1608 False Dmitry II approached Moscow. Many nobles and government officials, dissatisfied with Shuisky’s rule, moved to Tushino. Dual power was established in the country. In fact, in Russia there were two kings, two Boyar Dumas, two systems of orders. A palace coup took place in Moscow.

Tsar Vasily July 17, 1610 was dethroned. After the overthrow of Shuisky, an interregnum began in Moscow. Power passed into the hands of the boyars, who soon swore allegiance to the Polish prince Vladislav, in September 1610 The Poles entered the capital.

Some Russian cities did not support the Poles, and the country split into two camps. Period from 1610 to 1613 went down in history as "Seven Boyars"- by the number of boyars who headed the “Russian” party.

A powerful popular anti-Polish movement is rising in the country and 1611 A people's militia is formed and besieges Moscow. The militia was led by the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov. Due to contradictions in the government of I, the militia disintegrated, but the very next year a second militia was formed in Nizhny Novgorod. His headman Kuzma Minin V September 1611 called on fellow citizens to help the Moscow state. The head of the zemstvo militia invited the steward and governor prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky. IN October The militia took Moscow by storm and the Poles capitulated.

IN January 1613 The Zemsky Sobor was convened in the year, at which the election of a new king took place. Largely thanks to Patriarch Filaret, they put Mikhail Romanov, who was 16 years old at the time. The power of the new tsar was significantly limited by the boyars and the Zemsky Sobor, without whose blessing the tsar could not make the most important decisions.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE GREAT TROUBLES:

It is very difficult to assess the significance of the Time of Troubles for the fate of our state. The immediate events of this period led to global economic devastation And impoverishment of the country. The consequence of the turmoil was that Russia lost part of its lands, which had to be returned with heavy losses: Smolensk, western Ukraine, Kola Peninsula. For an indefinite period, one could forget about access to the sea, and therefore about trade with Western Europe. Severely weakened Russian state was surrounded by strong enemies in the person of Poland and Sweden, the Crimean Tatars revived. On the other hand, the role of the people in the expulsion of the Polish-Swedish invaders, the accession of the new Romanov dynasty (1613-1917) – they united society, and the self-awareness of the Russian people rose to a qualitatively new level.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke had a negative impact on the pace and course cultural development ancient Russian people. Massive destruction delayed the development of stone construction for almost half a century.

The rise of Moscow and the gathering of Russian lands around it contributed to the restoration of broken ties between Russian lands. By the end of the 15th century, when Moscow turned into the most important economic, military-political and spiritual center, the process of formation of the Russian nationality intensified and the trends in the formation of a single national culture intensified. The fight against foreign conquerors caused a new rise in oral folk art. The legends, epics and tales created by the people called the Russian people to fight to overthrow the hated yoke. One of the most famous legends of this period - “The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh,” a city that sank to the bottom of the lake, but did not surrender to the enemy.

Chronicle writing did not lose its significance during this period, despite the destruction of almost all of its centers, with the exception of Novgorod, where it was not interrupted. Already at the end of the XIII-beginning. XIV centuries New chronicle centers emerged (Tver, Moscow), and a new rise in the chronicle genre began.

The formation of a centralized state was a powerful stimulus for the development of culture. The need to strengthen the internal and foreign policy position of the state led to an unprecedented growth in state needs for the development of the most diverse areas of material and spiritual culture.

A major role in strengthening the defining positions of the Orthodox Church was played by the Council of the Hundred Heads in 1551, which attempted to regulate art. The work of Rublev was proclaimed as a model in painting, from the point of view of his iconography, that is, the arrangement of figures, the use of certain colors, etc. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was put forward as a model, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius and his circle. While limiting the freedom of creativity, the decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral at the same time contributed to the preservation of a high level of craftsmanship.

On a national scale, education was still primary, ecclesiastical in nature, and available only to a select few. Literacy was widespread primarily among feudal lords, clergy and merchants. The most common was training in monasteries. At home and in private schools, people of the clergy usually taught; secular “masters of literacy” were extremely rare. The basis of any educational process constituted theological disciplines. As a rule, they also taught reading and writing, and sometimes the beginnings of arithmetic. As " teaching aids“They usually used liturgical books; only in the second half of the century did special grammars and arithmetic appear.

The development of writing was accompanied by a change in the writing technique itself, adapting to the increased demand for books and various kinds of documents. The most important cultural phenomenon of the 16th century. was the beginning of printing. In 1564 The deacon of one of the Moscow churches, Ivan Fedorov, published “The Apostle” - the first Russian printed book. Subsequently, Fedorov published the first primer in Lvov. However, in the 16th century. They printed mainly liturgical books. 16th century Gave bright works social thought, associated with the development of a centralized state, the strengthening of royal power, and the formation of a new social system - the nobility.

New socio-political conditions have brought new problems to the forefront. Much attention Russian literature began to focus on issues of autocratic power, the place and importance of the church in the state, and the international position of Russia. This contributed to the development of new literary genres. At the same time, genres and trends traditional for Russian literature have retained their significance.

Chronicle writing continued to develop, from now on subordinated to a single center and a single goal - the strengthening of the Russian centralized state, the authority of the royal and church authorities.

"The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom" describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and proves the need to establish royal power in Rus'. The “Degree Book” contains portraits and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans, arranged in 17 degrees, starting from Vladimir I (Svyatoslavich) to Ivan IV. The facial chronicle vault (Nikon Chronicle) is a unique world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century.

The development of architecture during this period reflected the growing international authority of the Russian state. Coming new stage both in temple and civil construction, characterized by an organic combination of national traditions and the latest achievements domestic and European architecture. Many monuments of the late XV-XVI centuries. are outstanding achievements not only of Russian, but also of world architecture.

The completion of the construction of the Moscow Kremlin ensemble was an important milestone both in the history of Russian architecture and in the history of the Russian state.

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin. Among them is the Prince's Palace, consisting of several interconnected buildings. What remains of this palace is the Chamber of Facets (1487-1491), built by Italian architects Pietro Antonio Solari and Mark Fryazin. The flourishing of domestic architecture was also manifested in the emergence of a new style - tent construction, based on national traditions wooden architecture, carving, embroidery, painting. Unlike cross-domed churches, tented churches do not have pillars inside and the entire mass of the building rests only on the foundation. One of the first monuments of this style is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in 1532 by order of Grand Duke Vasily III, in honor of the birth of his son Ivan, the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible.

Most famous monument hipped architecture - the Intercession Cathedral, which at the end of the century received the name St. Basil's Cathedral after the famous Moscow holy fool, buried under one of its chapels. The cathedral was built in 1555-1561. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan by Russian troops.

Tent churches were built in Suzdal, Zagorsk and other cities.

Fine art developed in line with the general cultural process and is characterized by two main trends: the blurring of the boundaries of local schools and a noticeable strengthening of secular elements. The Moscow school dominated in icon painting, which developed on the basis of a synthesis of local schools and became the basis of the all-Russian national icon painting school. Icon painters of towns and cities increasingly deviated from classical norms; there was greater diversity in subjects and color scheme, elements of “everydayism” appear. The icons of the Mother of God cycle “Rejoices in You” have become widespread, which testifies to the special role assigned by the people’s consciousness to the Mother of God.

From the end of the 15th century. fine arts characterized by growing interest in real historical figures and events, the range of painting themes expands. Because to counter this trend Orthodox Church could no longer, the clergy tried to take control of its development. Cathedral 1553-1554 allowed the faces of kings, princes, as well as “existential writing” to be depicted on icons, i.e. historical stories. This decision contributed to the development of the genre historical portrait. On the frescoes of the gallery of the Annunciation Cathedral, traditional images of saints, great Russian princes and Byzantine emperors are side by side with portraits of ancient poets and thinkers: Homer, Virgil, Plutarch, Aristotle, etc. The Golden Chamber of the royal palace was decorated with the “letter of existence” (the frescoes have not survived).

The largest Russian painter of this period was Dionysius, who continued the traditions of Andrei Rublev. He painted the frescoes of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary at the Ferapontov Monastery (1490-1503). The growth of cities and towns and the development of crafts contributed to further development in the 16th century in decorative and applied arts, the main center of which was Moscow. The best artisans united in royal and metropolitan workshops.

The crafts of that time were different great variety: wood carving, sewing, silversmithing, embossing, bell casting, copper casting, enamel, etc. Artistic sewing achieved outstanding success, in which gold and silver threads were used instead of silk threads, pearls were widely used, gems. The best samples gold and silver works are kept in the Kremlin in the Armory Chamber.

Culture of Rus' XIV–XVI centuries.

The development of Russian culture during this period was influenced by many factors. This is also the development of previous traditions, especially those related to Christian values ​​and church interests. New factors also appear that influence culture: the gathering of Russian lands around the Moscow principality and the creation of a single centralized state, the establishment national identity in the fight against the Golden Horde yoke. From century to century, the role of Moscow and the Moscow Grand Dukes becomes more and more noticeable. Muscovite Rus' turned into a center not only of unification processes, but also of cultural development.

Literature . In Russian literature, the theme of the fight against the Horde yoke occupied a large place. The works of the Kulikovo cycle (“Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of Mamaev's massacre"). They are imbued with a sense of patriotism and admiration for the exploits of Russian soldiers.

In the second half of the 15th century. experiencing a new birth old genre travels (descriptions of travel). Especially popular was reading about the adventures of the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, who reached India. “Walking across Three Seas” is a description of an eight-year dramatic journey that ends with a return to his native land.

Chronicle traditions were preserved and multiplied. In the 14th century An all-Russian chronicle was created in Moscow, and the Chronograph, compiled in 1442, includes a description of world history.

In the first half of the 16th century. a group formed around Metropolitan Macarius educated people, who created the famous “Great Chetya Menaion”. This is a collection of the most read books in Rus': hagiographic literature, teachings, legends, etc. - as a rule, not of a liturgical nature, but directly related to the Orthodox tradition.

An important cultural event was the advent of printing. It is associated with the names of Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets, who created the first printed book “Apostle” (1564). This book was produced at a high printing level for that time. Due to persecution and accusations of heresy, Ivan Fedorov moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and continued his educational activities there. The first Russian primer with grammar was published in Lvov. Despite the difficulties, book printing continued to develop in the Moscow state - printing houses were appearing here again. The church's reaction to printing was so negative that even in the 17th century. The printed book could not supplant the handwritten one.

Socio-political thought. Among Russian written sources of the 15th–16th centuries. There are many works in which the authors reflect on the fate of Russia. The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir emphasized the idea of ​​succession of power of Moscow rulers from the Byzantine emperors. Pskov monk Philotheus in his message Vasily III argued that Moscow is the “Third Rome”. “Two Romes have fallen, but the third stands, and the fourth will not exist,” he argued.

Certificate secularization culture are the journalistic works of Fyodor Karpov and Ivan Peresvetov. Both talked about the nature of a strong, fair state, about power.

A notable monument of spiritual culture of the 16th century. – “Domostroy”, one of the editors of which was Ivan IV’s close associate – Sylvester. In this work, which has become a model of the organization of life and behavior of Russian people over the centuries, we find instructions of different nature: about the performance of religious rituals, advice on raising children, about the relationship between husband and wife, how to store supplies and dry laundry, when to buy goods at the market and how to receive guests.

The correspondence between Tsar Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky is interesting from the point of view of the development of the Russian language, as well as in content. It was a dispute between two ardent opponents about ways to centralize power, about the relationship between the sovereign and his subjects. The tsar defended the idea of ​​servility of all subjects in relation to autocratic power. He formulated the basic principle of despotism this way: “I am free to reward my slaves, but I am also free to execute them.” Kurbsky imagined royal power otherwise, the king is responsible for his actions not only before God, but also before people, he cannot violate the rights of his subjects, he must listen to wise advisers.

Architecture . Moscow becomes the capital of a huge power, the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the Moscow prince makes it possible to begin stone construction on an unprecedented scale. Dmitry Donskoy in 1366–1367 began construction of the new Moscow Kremlin. On the site of the wooden fortifications built under Ivan Kalita, a new white-stone Kremlin arose. Moscow became an impregnable fortress at that time.

The flourishing of architecture at the end of the 15th century. associated with intensive construction in Moscow. Ivan III invites Italian architects to work, among whom Aristotle Fioravanti stands out. Under his leadership, a new Assumption Cathedral was built in the Kremlin - the cathedral church of the metropolitans. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir was taken as a model. Fioravanti drew up a project for the construction of new walls and towers. The Kremlin and walls were built of red brick (they still exist today). True, the Kremlin towers did not yet have tents - they were erected later, in the 17th century. The internal layout of the Kremlin was finally formed. The Faceted Chamber for ceremonial receptions, the Archangel Cathedral (the burial vault of Moscow princes and tsars), the house church for sovereigns - the Annunciation Cathedral and other buildings were built here. One of the most remarkable buildings in the Kremlin is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower. It was erected on the site of the ancient church of Ivan the Climacus, and therefore received the name Ivanovskaya. It was called Great for its extraordinary height - more than 80 m. The bell tower for a long time was the most tall building Rus'. It was founded at the beginning of the 16th century. simultaneously with the Archangel Cathedral, and was completed only in 1600, under Boris Godunov.

The construction of Moscow fortifications continued throughout the 16th century. A semi-ring of Kitay-Gorod fortifications was added to the Kremlin, and at the end of the century, “city master” Fyodor Kon erected the “White City” about 9.5 km long. F. Kon also built the walls of the Kremlin in Smolensk.

In the second half of the 16th century. From the traditions of wooden architecture, but already in stone, the tent style emerges. A remarkable example of it is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye. Tent-roofed church architecture did not spread widely, since it contradicted church canons and was prohibited by church authorities. In 1551–1561 masters Postnik Yakovlev and Barma built the Intercession Cathedral (better known as St. Basil's Cathedral) on Red Square. This building was dedicated to the capture of Kazan.

Painting . In the second half of the 14th - first half of the 15th century. two great Russian artists worked - Feofan the Greek and Andrei Rublev. Theophanes, a native of Byzantium, lived in Novgorod and then in Moscow. His frescoes and icons are characterized by a special emotionality. A. Rublev's painting is unique in its composition and its unique coloring. These features were most clearly manifested in his famous Trinity icon. The traditions of Andrei Rublev were continued after his death. The fresco paintings of Dionysius are especially notable (they are best preserved in the Ferapontov Monastery in the Belozersky region). The decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral influenced not only architecture, but also painting. Painters were obliged to strictly adhere to Greek models and A. Rublev’s icon painting. This led to the fact that only technical writing techniques were improved.

Craft. In the XIV–XVI centuries. The development of the craft continued. The main centers of handicraft production were cities, monasteries, and some large estates. At the end of the 15th century. The Cannon Yard is being created in Moscow. The first cannons appeared in Rus' in last third XIV century In subsequent centuries, a whole school of cannon masters emerged. One of its representatives was Andrei Chokhov, creator of the famous Tsar Cannon. Its production took about 2.5 pounds of non-ferrous metals, its caliber is 89 cm, and the barrel length is almost 5.5 m.

Option 1

The Mongol-Tatar invasion interrupted the powerful rise of Russian culture. Destruction of cities, loss of traditions, extinction artistic directions, the destruction of monuments of writing, painting, and architecture is a blow from which it was possible to recover only by the middle of the 14th century. In the ideas and images of Russian culture of the XIV-XVI centuries. reflected the mood of the era - a time of decisive successes in the struggle for independence, the overthrow of the Horde yoke, unification around Moscow, the formation of the Great Russian people.
The memory of a prosperous and happy country, which remains in the consciousness of society Kievan Rus(“lightly bright and beautifully decorated” - words from “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, no later than 1246), was preserved primarily by literature. Chronicle writing remained its most important genre; it was revived in all lands and principalities of Rus'. At the beginning of the 15th century. In Moscow, the first all-Russian chronicle was compiled - an important evidence of progress in the unification of the country. With the completion of this process, chronicle writing, subordinated to the idea of ​​substantiating the power of the Moscow prince and then the tsar, acquired an official character. During the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible (70s of the 16th century), an illustrated “Facebook Chronicle” was compiled in 12 volumes, containing more than one and a half ten thousand miniatures. In the XIV-XV centuries. The favorite theme of oral folk art is the struggle of Rus' with the “infidels.” A genre of historical song is emerging (“Song about Shchelkan”, about the Battle of Kalka, about the ruin of Ryazan, about Evpatiy Kolovrat, etc.). Historical songs also reflected major events XVI century - Kazan campaign of Ivan the Terrible, oprichnina, image of the Terrible Tsar. Victory in the Battle of Kulikovo 1380 gave rise to a series of historical stories, of which “The Tale of Mamayev’s Massacre” and the inspired “Zadonshchina” stand out (its author Sophony Ryazanets used images and excerpts from “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”). Lives of saints were created in the 16th century. they are combined into a 12-volume set of “Great Chetiy-Menya”. In the 15th century The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin (“Walking across Three Seas”) describes his journey to India and Persia. “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom” remains a unique literary monument - the love story of the Murom prince and his wife, probably described by Ermolai-Erasmus in the middle of the 16th century. “Domostroy”, written by Ivan the Terrible’s confessor Sichvester, is remarkable in its own way - a book about housekeeping, raising and educating children, and the role of women in the family.
At the end of the XV-XVI centuries. literature is enriched with brilliant journalistic works. The Josephites (followers of the abbot of the Volotsk monastery Joseph, who defend the principle of non-interference of the state in the affairs of a rich and materially strong church) and non-acquisitors (Nil Sorsky, Vassian Patrikeev, Maxim the Greek, who condemn the church for wealth and luxury, for craving for worldly pleasures) argue fiercely. In 1564-1577 Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky exchange angry messages. “...Tsars and rulers who make cruel laws perish,” Kurbsky inspires the king and hears in response: “Is this really light - when priests and crafty slaves rule, while the king is a king only in name and honor, and not at all with power?” no better than a slave? The idea of ​​the “autocracy” of the tsar, the divinity of his power, acquires almost hypnotic power in Ivan the Terrible’s messages. Differently, but just as consistently, Ivan Peresvetov writes about the special calling of the autocratic tsar in “The Great Petition” (1549): when punishing boyars who have forgotten about their duty to society, the righteous monarch must rely on the devoted nobility. The meaning of the official ideology is the idea of ​​Moscow as the “third Rome”: “Two Romes (“the second Rome” - Constantinople, devastated in 1453 - Author) have fallen, the third stands, the fourth will not exist” (Philofey).

Let us note that in 1564 in Moscow, Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets published the first Russian printed book - “The Apostle”.

In the architecture of the XIV-XVI centuries. the trends in the historical development of Rus'-Russia were reflected with particular clarity. At the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. Stone construction is being resumed - in Novgorod and Pskov, which suffered less than others from the Ordish yoke. In the XIV century. appears in Novgorod new type churches - light, elegant, bright (Spas on Ilyin). But half a century passes, and tradition wins: harsh, heavy structures reminiscent of the past are being erected again. Politics imperiously invades art, demanding that it be the guardian of independence, which the unifier Moscow is so successfully fighting. It accumulates the signs of a capital city of a single state gradually but consistently. In 1367 The white stone Kremlin was erected at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries. New red brick walls and towers are being erected. They are built by masters Pietro Antonio Solari, Aleviz Novy, and Mark Ruffo, imported from Italy. By that time, on the territory of the Kremlin, the Italian Aristotle Fioravanti had already erected the Assumption Cathedral (1479), an outstanding architectural monument in which an experienced eye will see both traditional features of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture and elements of the construction art of the Renaissance. Next to another job Italian masters- The Chamber of Facets (1487-1489) - Pskov craftsmen build the Annunciation Cathedral (1484-1489). A little later, the same Aleviz the New completes the magnificent ensemble of Cathedral Square with the Archangel Cathedral, the tomb of the Grand Dukes (1505-1509). Behind the Kremlin wall on Red Square in 1555-1560. In honor of the capture of Kazan, the nine-domed Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) was erected, topped with a high multifaceted pyramid - a tent. This detail gave it the name “tent” architectural style, which arose in the 16th century. (Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, 1532). The zealots of antiquity fight against “outrageous innovations,” but their victory is relative: at the end of the century, the desire for splendor and beauty is revived. Painting of the second half of the XIV-XV centuries is the golden age of Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. The paintings of the Novgorod (Savior on Ilyin) and Moscow (Annunciation Cathedral) churches of Theophanes the Greek and the icons of Rublev (“Trinity”, “Savior”, etc.) are addressed to God, but tell about man, his soul, about the search for harmony and ideal. Painting, while remaining deeply religious in themes, images, genres (wall paintings, icons), acquires unexpected humanity, gentleness, and philosophy.

Option 2

Culture and spiritual life of Rus' in the 14th-16th centuries.

By the 14th century, in conditions of fragmentation and the influence of neighboring peoples, features in the language, customs, and culture of peoples developed different parts Rus'. The 14th-16th centuries were associated with the struggle against the Horde yoke and the formation of a Russian centralized state around Moscow. The literature is represented by historical songs, where the victory on the “Kulikovo Field” and the heroism of Russian soldiers were glorified. In “Zadonshchina” and “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev” he talks about the victory over the Mongol-Tatars. Afanasy Nikitin, who visited India, left his notes “Walking across Three Seas,” where he talks about the customs and beauties of this region. An outstanding event in Russian culture was book printing. In 1564, Ivan Fedorov published the first printed book in Russia, “The Apostle,” and later “The Primer.” In the 16th century, an encyclopedia of patriarchal conditions of family life was created. Painting increasingly began to move away from church channels. Theophanes the Greek in the 14th century. painted the churches of Novgorod and Moscow. Andrei Rublev, known for Trinity, worked with him. Dianisy painted the Vologda Cathedral near Vologda and others. It is characterized by: brightness, festivity, sophistication. The development of architecture is associated with large-scale construction in Moscow, where the walls of the Kremlin, the Archangel Annunciation Cathedral, the Assumption Cathedrals, the Faceted Chamber, and the bell tower of Ivan the Great were erected. High level crafts have reached, especially foundry. Andrei Chokhov created the Tsar Cannon, which weighs 40 tons and its caliber is 89 cm. In the culture of the 14th-16th centuries. More and more secular elements are appearing, a kind of return and revival of Russian culture is taking place.