Already in the art of the 17th century, especially its second half, trends were observed that prepared the ground for the rapid development of secular realistic art of the 18th century. Iconographic convention gives way to life-like reproduction of people, landscapes and historical events.

The traditional floral ornament, interpreted rather conventionally, is replaced by the reproduction of realistically rendered flowers, fruits, leaves, garlands and shells. On works of applied art, painting on religious subjects takes on an almost secular character, sometimes emphatically decorative and theatrical. The shapes of objects become magnificent, solemn, with a wide variety of decorations. Many ancient types of household items are disappearing, such as cups with flat shelves and handles, and silver coins. Traditional ancient ladles are turning into purely decorative reward items that have lost their practical meaning.

The art of silver coinage acquired a unique look, especially from the mid-18th century. These are mostly large baroque scrolls masterfully executed in rather high relief in combination with images of fruits, baskets of flowers, cupids, garlands of flowers and leaves.

The embossing was often made openwork and in this case had an additional background that illuminated the pattern.

A classic example of such coinage is the massive setting of the Gospel made in Moscow in 1754, contributed by Empress Elizabeth1. Silver plates with painted enamel images of the Trinity, the Evangelists, and scenes from the life of Christ are placed in tall chased bezels and squares. They are distinguished by their secular character.

The Moscow master P. Vorobey made a silver bowl in 1768 (used in the monastery as a holy bowl). It is decorated with an excellent chased ornament of peculiar curled cartouches and wide leaves on a gilded background. The legs of the bowl are lion paws, holding smooth balls in their claws. A salt shaker made in 1787, decorated with embossing and niello, was made by a Moscow master, a gift from Catherine II to Metropolitan Plato3.

The new center of jewelry making - St. Petersburg - is represented in the museum's collection by a chased silver handpiece with a spout in the shape of an eagle's head, made in 1768 by master Claes Johann Ehlers4. The same master made a chased silver dish with a baroque ornament on the field and a depiction of a biblical scene: a whale washes up Jonah5. At the same time, the master depicted here the shore of St. Petersburg with the Peter and Paul Fortress and the spire of the cathedral. The hand and the dish are the contribution of Metropolitan Plato.

Filigree art takes on a completely different character.

Instead of a flat curl with branches curling on the smooth surface of the metal in ancient works, the filigree drawing of the 18th century. it is further complicated by additional decorations placed on top, sometimes in combination with enamel and precious stones. In some cases, the filigree is made openwork and superimposed on an additional background. Sometimes the item was made from filigree threads.

An outstanding piece of filigree work is the tabernacle of 1789, contributed by Metropolitan Plato7. Here are openwork filigree, filigree combined with enamel, and filigree superimposed on a smooth silver background.

The tabernacle has the appearance of a secular box, as evidenced by its completely non-ecclesiastical shape, elegant decoration and flowers planted in the corners made of thin metal parts with enamel.

An example of skillful relief filigree can be the cover of the book “Officer of the Bishop's Service”, also the contribution of Metropolitan Platon in 17898.

Great development was achieved in the 18th century. Solvychegodsk and Veliky Ustyug enamels with their single-color (blue or white) background, on which human figures, flowers and other images, sometimes additionally colored with enamels, are superimposed in the form of separate metal plates. The museum has a large collection of household items from Solvychegodsk and Ustyug.

On works of the XIV-XV centuries. the picture of the gradual revival of artistic crafts after the Tatar-Mongol devastation of the Russian land in the 13th century is revealed. Masters from Moscow and other art centers of Ancient Rus' master various artistic techniques and improve their craftsmanship.

In the 16th century Moscow is finally gaining a leading place in the cultural life of the country. The applied arts of this period are distinguished by a variety of forms and artistic decorations, as well as great technical skill. The complex art of enamel, which has taken on a mainly ornamental character, is being improved, and the art of gold niello, embossing and engraving is achieving greater mastery.

Works made of silver for household and church purposes follow the traditions of folk art and are associated with the living conditions of the people, their rituals and way of life.

The colorfulness and decorativeness of 17th-century products, the complexity of ornaments, the appearance of painted enamels, and the use of large quantities of precious stones, pearls and colored glass give a more secular character to applied art.

In the 18th century new forms of objects, realistic patterns and enamel painting were adopted. In the collection of the Zagorsk Museum, this period is represented by the best workshops of Moscow and St. Petersburg. Their works make it possible to judge the new changes taking place in the applied arts.

The high artistic mastery of works of applied art, presented over more than five centuries, places the collection of the Zagorsk Museum in a prominent place in the history of Russian artistic culture

Development of decorative and applied arts contributed to the improvement of the technology of handicraft and manufacturing production, the emergence of the artistic industry (production of tapestries, art glass, faience, stone cutting, silk and cloth production), the manufacturing of fashionable items, luxury goods, the discovery and development of deposits of copper, tin, silver, colored stone, high quality clays.

The role of the Academy of Sciences in the “prosperity of free arts and manufactories”, reflecting new natural science and technical interests in the decorative and applied arts, is significant. In the first half of the 18th century, new forms of education and training of craftsmen appeared in artistic manufactories; guild organizations of artisans are emerging in Russia, which does not negate the widespread use of foreign craftsmen in various fields of decorative and applied arts.

In decorative and applied arts (interior items, furniture, decor), fashion actively dictates the style. As a result, new types of objects appear and aesthetic ideas in decorative and applied arts are updated. In the decorative and applied arts of the mid-18th century, there was a tendency to synthesize the arts, where architecture, sculpture, painting, and applied crafts were fused together in a decorative ensemble.

As a result, the art of interior design becomes a special type of artistic activity in the work of architects of the 18th century. This type of artistic activity determines the emergence of new types of premises (offices, front rooms, bedrooms, living rooms, “picture halls”) and their subject content (Summer Palace, A.D. Menshikov Palace, Great Peterhof Palace, Monplaisir).

All this contributes to the development of furniture making; new types and forms of furniture, materials and methods of decorating them appear. The influence of English and Dutch furniture is very strong here. Under the influence of Europe, even the Baroque and Rococo style in furniture was developing in Russia.

Classicism furniture has a characteristic character and shape. To a large extent, antique motifs can be traced in the shapes and decoration of furniture. In the middle of the 18th century, architects took part in the development of new types of furniture, furniture art and designer furniture appeared in Russia (Brenna, Lvov, Cameron, Voronikhin). In the second half of the 18th century, the first furniture workshops appeared (the workshop of G. Gambs and I. Ott). This period in furniture art is characterized by the Jacob style. By the second half of the 18th century, materials in furniture art changed: mahogany, gilded wood, poplar, Karelian birch appeared here; Fabric and embroidery are increasingly being used in furniture making.

Ceramics and faience occupy a special place in the decorative and applied arts. This occurs initially due to the expansion of imports of earthenware from England and Holland. However, soon the first private manufactory of A. Grebenshchikov appeared in Moscow, producing Russian fine faience. Later, the style of ceremonial palace dishes with matte engraving was formed and the fashion for crystal as an interior item spread. This entails the opening of Maltsov’s first private glass and crystal factory in Mozhaisk district.

In the 18th century, due to the growing popularity of decorative and applied arts and room decoration, the consumption of glass increased significantly, which was used to create a variety of mirrors and lighting fixtures.

Sculpture and painting of the second half of the 18th century.

Played a major role in the development of painting in the 18th century creation Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky. Despite the fact that the artist was not officially listed as a student of the Academy, he, without a doubt, used the advice of its teachers and, above all, Levitsky. The young artist’s natural talent and iron tenacity soon led to Borovikovsky becoming one of the first masters of the late 18th century. He created a series of excellent portraits of his contemporaries, including G. Derzhavin, V. Arsenyeva, M. Lopukhina, O. Filippova and many others. A constant interest in the emotional experiences of a person, emphasized lyricism and contemplation, fanned with a haze of sentimentality, so characteristic of the era, are characteristic of most of Borovikovsky’s works. The artist never followed the path of external, superficial characterization of the image, constantly striving to convey the subtlest spiritual movements of the persons portrayed.

Chamber portraits predominate in his work. Borovikovsky strives to affirm the self-worth and moral purity of a person (portrait of “Lizynka and Dashinka”, portrait of E.N. Arsenyeva, etc.). At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, Borovikovsky was attracted by strong, energetic personalities; he focused on citizenship, nobility, and dignity of those portrayed. The appearance of his models becomes more restrained, the landscape background is replaced by images of the interior (portraits of A.A. Dolgorukov, M.I. Dolgoruka, etc.).

Borovikovsky is also a recognized master of portrait miniatures. The collection of the Russian Museum contains works belonging to his brush - portraits of A.A. Menelas, V.V. Kapnist, N.I. Lvova and others. The artist often used tin as a basis for his miniatures.

Russian portrait painting of the 18th century reaches its true peak in creativity D.G.Levitsky . Already in one of his early works - a portrait of the architect A. Kokorinov - Levitsky showed outstanding abilities as a painter. The portrait of the great French materialist philosopher D. Diderot, painted by Levitsky in St. Petersburg in 1773, and the series of portraits of female students of the Smolny Institute created by the artist are distinguished by high artistic merit. The images of these girls are marked with sincerity and warmth, and the uniqueness of each of them is masterfully conveyed.

Portraits of subsequent years - Lvova, the artist's father, the Bakunins, Anna Davia and many other masterpieces by Levitsky - are clear evidence of his brilliant talent.

Levitsky created an extensive gallery of portraits of his contemporaries, capturing broadly and completely, like no one else, living images of people of the era. Levitsky's art completes the history of the development of Russian portrait painting in the 18th century. It should, however, be noted that there are some historically determined limitations of his work: like other remarkable artists of his time, Levitsky could not reflect the social contradictions of reality. The people depicted by the artist, in accordance with the prevailing aesthetic ideas, always pose somewhat; they seem to be trying to show themselves to the viewer in the “most pleasant” light. However, in a number of his works the artist achieves amazing simplicity and vitality.

Levitsky's legacy is enormous and still evokes a feeling of immediate aesthetic pleasure in viewers. The professional perfection of his works and their realistic orientation place the artist in one of the most honorable places in the entire history of Russian art.

Among the most famous works of D. G. Levitsky are the following: “Portrait of E. A. Vorontsova”, “Portrait of the architect A. F. Kokorinov”, “Portrait of N. A. Lvov”, “Portrait of M. A. Dyakova”, “Portrait Ursula Mniszech”, “Portrait of Agasha’s daughter in Russian costume”, etc.

In the field of portraiture, Russian artists of the second half of the 18th century also said their new word. The sharpness of the psychological characteristics that marked many portraits of this time is striking - the brush of the best Russian masters is increasingly gravitating towards a truthful depiction of the image of a person. It is significant that at this time portraits were created not only of the nobility and the “powers of this world,” but also of a number of progressive public figures. These portraits completely lack elements of pomp and external gloss; Artists pay their attention to conveying the inner content of a person, to revealing the strength of his mind, the nobility of his thoughts and aspirations.

The development of Russian portraiture found its expression in works of F. Rokotov.

Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov- one of the best Russian portrait painters. Having received an art education under the guidance of L.-J. Le Lorrain and Count Pietro Rotari, worked in the manner of the latter, but delved into nature more than him and was diligent in execution. In 1762 he was admitted as an adjunct to the newly founded St. Petersburg. Academy of Arts for the painting “Venus” presented to her and for the portrait of Emperor Peter III.

Subtle pictorial skill distinguishes the portraits of this artist. Rokotov brings the intimate spirituality of the image, especially in female portraits, to great expressiveness and strength. The highly technical perfection of the artist's works - in terms of the nature of the drawing and pictorial skill, only Levitsky can be compared with him. The portraits created by Rokotov are distinguished by their sophistication of design and elegance of color.

The most famous works of Rokotov include: “Portrait of an unknown woman in a pink dress”, “Portrait of A.I. Vorontsov”, “Portrait of G.G. Orlov in armor”, “Coronation portrait of Catherine II”, “Portrait of A.P. Struyskaya” , “Portrait of the poet V.I. Maykov”, “Portrait of Surovtseva”, etc.

In the second half of the 18th century. began to develop in Russian painting everyday genre. However, genre painting was considered by the leadership of the Academy of Arts and privileged layers of society as something base, unworthy of the artist’s brush. Despite this, after the peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev, both in literature, theater and music, and in painting of the 1770-1780s. interest began to appear in the peasantry, their way of life, and way of life. Often these were sentimental images of idyllic shepherds and shepherdesses, which had nothing in common with real peasant life. However, there were exceptions.

One of the first in Russian painting to develop the peasant theme was the serf of Prince G. A. Potemkin Mikhail Shibanov . He painted the paintings “Peasant Lunch”, “Wedding Agreement Celebration”, etc. In Shibanov’s paintings there is no denunciation of serfdom, however, in these paintings there is no idealization of peasant life. The artist is distinguished by his knowledge and understanding of the life and character of the Russian peasant.

The peasant theme was reflected in the work of the artist I. M. Tankov (1739 - 1799), the author of the painting “Holiday in the Village” and I. A. Ermenev (1746 - after 1792), who painted the watercolors “Peasant Lunch”, “Beggar Singers” and etc.). For the first time in the history of Russian art, the artist conveyed the gloomy aspects of people's life, the squalor of poverty.

In the second half of the 18th century. the real flowering of Russian sculpture begins. It developed slowly, but Russian educational thought and Russian classicism were the greatest incentives for the development of the art of great civic ideas and large-scale problems, which determined the interest in sculpture during this period. Shubin, Gordeev, Kozlovsky, Shchedrin, Prokofiev, Martos - each was a bright individual in his own right and left his mark on art. But they were all united by common creative principles, which they learned from Professor Nicolas Gillet, who headed the sculpture class at the Academy from 1758 to 1777, general ideas of citizenship and patriotism, and the high ideals of antiquity.

The search for the generally beautiful does not exclude the full depth of comprehension of human character, the desire to convey its versatility. This desire is palpable in monumental decorative sculpture and easel sculpture of the second half of the century, but especially in the genre of portraiture.

His highest achievements are associated primarily with creativity Fedot Ivanovich Shubin (1740-1805), a fellow countryman of Lomonosov, who arrived in St. Petersburg already as an artist who had mastered the intricacies of bone carving. Shubin's first work in his homeland is a bust of A.M. Golitsyn already testifies to the full maturity of the master. All the versatility of the model’s characteristics is revealed when examining it all around, although there is undoubtedly a main point of view for the sculpture.

Shubin worked not only as a portrait painter, but also as a decorator. He executed 58 oval marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace (located in the Armory Chamber), sculptures for the Marble Palace and for Peterhof, a statue of Catherine II - the legislator (1789-1790). There is no doubt that Shubin is the largest phenomenon in Russian artistic culture of the 18th century. The French sculptor Etienne-Maurice Falconet worked in Russia together with domestic masters, who in the monument to Peter I on Senate Square in St. Petersburg expressed his understanding of the personality of Peter and her historical role in the destinies of Russia.

Fedor Fedorovich Shchedrin(1751-1825). He went through the same stages of training at the Academy and retirement in Italy and France as Shubin. “Marsyas,” performed by him in 1776, is full of violent movement and a tragic attitude. Like all sculptors of the era of classicism, Shchedrin is fascinated by ancient images (“Sleeping Endymion”; “Venus”), showing a particularly poetic insight into their world.

In the second half of the 18th century, Russian applied art achieved a significant rise. This was facilitated by the development of the economy, trade, science and technology and, to a large extent, close ties with architecture and the fine arts. The number of large and small factories, factories, workshops producing fabrics, glass, porcelain, and furniture grew. Landowners set up various workshops based on serf labor on their estates.

The humanistic ideas of the Enlightenment were uniquely reflected in the applied art of the late 18th century. The craftsmen of this time were distinguished by their attention to personal tastes and human needs, and the search for comfort in the environment.

A new style - Russian classicism - at the turn of the 1770-1780s was established in all types of applied art. Architects M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov, D. Quarenghi, C. Cameron, A. N. Voronikhin created interiors in the spirit of noble simplicity and restraint with a clear division of parts, with a constructively justified arrangement of both plastic and picturesque architectural decor.

Furniture, candelabra, and chandeliers were designed using the same principles for palace premises. In the ornamentation of furniture, dishes, and fabrics, built in a clear rhythm, antique motifs appeared - acanthus, meander, ionics, vividly interpreted flowers, garlands, images of cupids, sphinxes. Gilding and colors became softer and more restrained than in the middle of the 18th century.

At the end of the 18th century, the passion for antiquity forced people to abandon even the complex and magnificent costume. Light, loose dresses with flowing folds and a high belt in an antique style came into fashion (V.L. Borovikovsky. “Portrait of M.I. Lopukhina.” 1797).

The synthesis of arts in Russian classicism is based on the principle of a harmonious combination of all types of arts.

Furniture. During the period of classicism, its forms are simple, balanced, clearly constructed, and the rhythms are calm. The outlines still retained some softness and roundness, but vertical and horizontal lines were already standing out. Decorations (low carvings, paintings, bronze and brass plates) emphasized the expressiveness of the structures. There was more concern for convenience. Suites were designed for front rooms for various purposes: living room, office, front bedroom, hall. New furniture forms emerged: tables for card games, handicrafts, lightweight portable bean tables (with a bean-shaped lid), and various types of chests of drawers. Sofas have become widespread, and in office furniture, bureau-secretaries, bureaus with a cylindrical roll-up lid.

As in previous periods, Russian furniture, compared to Western furniture, is more massive, more generalized, and simpler in detail. The material for it was local wood species - linden, birch (gilded and painted in light colors), walnut, oak, poplar, ash, pear, bog oak. At the end of the 18th century, Karelian birch and imported colored wood of mahogany, amaranth, rosewood and other species began to be used. The craftsmen knew how to show their beauty, structure, color, shine, skillfully emphasized by polishing.

Russian masters achieved great achievements in the technique of typography (marquetry). Its essence is to compose ornaments and entire Paintings (usually based on engravings) from pieces of colored wood on the surface of wooden objects. This kind of work is known not only from the capital's court furniture makers, but also from former serfs who worked in Moscow and the Moscow region: Nikifor Vasiliev (ill. 78), Matvey Veretennikov and the nameless masters of Tver and Arkhangelsk, who introduced walrus ivory into the set. Examples of the high art of carving furniture in the Ostankino Palace belong to the serfs Ivan Mochalin, Gavrila Nemkov and others. In St. Petersburg, the furniture and carvings of craftsmen from Okhta, who were transferred to the capital from various places under Peter I, were famous. The artistic appearance of the furniture was completed by upholstery with patterned silks, velvet, printed chintz, linen fabrics, which was in harmony with the decoration of the walls.

Fabrics. Of all the industries in the second half of the 18th century, textiles developed most successfully (Moscow, Ivanovo, Yaroslavl, Vladimir province). Its rise was determined not only by large manufactories, but also by small peasant enterprises. The craftsmen achieved particular perfection in new patterned linen fabrics with complex weaves, with a play of natural silver-white shades of linen. The traditions of peasant weaving and a deep understanding of the material were reflected here. Cheap and mass-produced motley and dyed goods were also produced. The decorative qualities of colored cloth and woolen fabrics have significantly improved.

The production of silk fabrics for dresses and decorative fabrics, scarves, and ribbons developed rapidly (ill. 80). By the end of the 18th century, they were not inferior in quality to French ones - the best in Europe. Russian weavers learned to use a variety of threads and complex weaving patterns reminiscent of embroidery. Compositional techniques and a rich palette in decorative fabrics were used to achieve the transfer of space, the subtlety of tonal transitions, and the precision of drawing flowers, birds, and landscapes. Such fabrics were used in decoration of palaces and sent abroad as gifts.

In fabrics for dresses, especially in sundress fabrics, until the 1780s - 1790s, patterns of complex, wavy floral garlands, ribbons, and beads were used. But gradually the garlands were replaced by stripes, the patterns became simpler, their rhythms smoother, the colors lighter and softer.

In the 1750-1760s in St. Petersburg and later in Moscow, in the village. Ivanovo (now the city of Ivanovo) developed the production of calico (cotton fabric with a printed pattern using infused, non-fading dyes and subsequent polishing). In calico patterns, craftsmen, especially those from Ivanovo, uniquely processed the motifs of silk fabrics. Based on folk printed material, they combined a rich pictorial spot and graphic cutting (pattern contours, grids, background dots). At first, calicoes were very expensive. By the end of the 18th century, cheap varieties began to be produced.

Porcelain. By the end of the 18th century, Russian porcelain became one of the best in Europe. The State Porcelain Factory in St. Petersburg operated successfully. His products were distinguished by their slightly warm whiteness, shiny glaze, and high technical quality. The shapes of dishes, vases, and their painting were not inferior to Western ones.

The most significant of the services is created - Arabesque for court receptions (1784, ill. 77). The table decoration of this service of nine allegorical sculptures glorifies the annexation of Georgia and Crimea, the “virtue” of Catherine II (sculptor J. D. Rashet). It is dominated by calm poses characteristic of classicism of the late 18th century, light gilding, strict proportions of serving dishes with arabesque paintings based on ancient ornaments.

In the 1780s, a series of sculptures “Peoples of Russia” (creative processing of engravings) was created - brightly decorative, with characteristic images - representatives of individual nationalities (Yakut, Samoyed, Tatar). Sculptural figures of street vendors and artisans were produced, depicted in motion and at work. Porcelain sculpture has become a favorite decoration of noble interiors for many decades.

Of the private porcelain factories, the factory of Franz Gardner (1765) (Verbilki village near Moscow) turns out to be the most viable. Already at the end of the 18th century, he made sets for the royal house with the original use of Russian order motifs in the paintings. Fairly cheap Gardner porcelain, distinguished by its simplicity of form, lush floral painting, close to folk traditions, was successful both in the capital and in the provinces (ill. 79).

Glass. Colored glass brought true glory to Russian glass in the last third of the 18th century. M.V. Lomonosov, with his work on the theory of color and the technology of colored glass, opened new paths to Russian glassmaking, enriched the palette of glass, and revived Russian mosaics. He organized a factory for the production of smalt, beads and glass in the village of Ust-Ruditsa, St. Petersburg province. The masters of the State Factory in St. Petersburg, Druzhinin and Kirillov, were trained in the melting of colored glass by Lomonosov. The plant is mastering the production of glass in deep and pure tones - blue, violet, rose-red, emerald green. Now its production is no longer dominated by engraved crystal, but by thin colored and colorless glass. Shot glasses, goblets, and decanters receive smooth shapes in which the body smoothly transitions into the stem, creating soft, graceful contours. The gold and silver paintings of garlands, bows, stars, and monograms are calm in rhythm and emphasize the plastic volumes of the vessels.

The so-called milky-white glass (mugs, decanters, church objects) is also produced, reminiscent in appearance and character of the paintings of more expensive porcelain.

By the end of the 18th century, the private glass factories of Bakhmetyev in the Penza province, the Maltsevs in the Vladimir and Oryol provinces, and many others were developing and achieving great success. Their colorless and colored glass and crystal are widely distributed throughout Russia.

Artistic metal processing. The flourishing of jewelry art in Russia began in the mid-18th century and continued throughout the century. It has artistic materials of extraordinary beauty: diamonds, emeralds, sapphires and other precious and semi-precious stones, painted enamels, non-ferrous metals (gold, silver, platinum, alloys). The art of cutting stones reaches a high degree of perfection. To enhance the play of the stone, jewelers find a variety of artistic and technical techniques for mounting and movably securing parts. Jewelry artists create intricately shaped, multi-colored jewelry: earrings, rings, snuff boxes, shoe buckles, buttons for luxurious suits for both men and women.

In the last third of the 18th century, the shapes of jewelry became balanced, and the color scheme of precious stones became stricter.

During this period, silversmiths achieved great success. In accordance with new tastes, the shapes of silver services are simple and clear. They are decorated with flutes and antique ornaments. On silver glasses and snuff boxes, the craftsmen of Veliky Ustyug reproduce images of ancient scenes and victories of Russian troops from engravings.

An outstanding phenomenon in the applied art of the 18th century is the steel artistic products of Tula masters: furniture, boxes, candlesticks, buttons, buckles, snuff boxes. They build the decorative effect of their works on the juxtaposition of smooth light steel and decorations in the form of faceted pieces that sparkle like diamonds. Craftsmen use bluing (heat treatment in a forge at different temperatures) of metal, which gives various shades - green, blue, purple, from thick to lightened. The traditions of folk art are reflected in the love of bright colors and a deep understanding of the material.

Colored stone. In the second half of the 18th century, deposits of marbles, cherry-pink orlets in the Urals, multi-colored jaspers, variegated breccias, Altai porphyries, and blue Baikal lapis lazuli were discovered. In addition to the Peterhof (1722-1723) and Yekaterinburg (early 1730s), the Loktev factory began operating in the very heart of Altai in 1787 (since 1802 it was replaced by the Kolyvan factory). There are wide possibilities for using colored stone in finishing and decorating monumental and decorative works of palace interiors.

The ability to identify the aesthetic qualities of a material has always distinguished Russian craftsmen, but it was especially clearly expressed in the art of stone cutting. Working according to architects' designs, stone cutters artistically reveal the fabulous beauty of the stone, its natural pattern, extraordinary shades of color, shine, enhancing them with excellent polishing. Gilded bronze in the form of handles, the pommel only complements and emphasizes the shape. Projects for stone carvings, obelisks, vases, based on ancient forms, were created by Quarenghi and Voronikhin.

The flourishing of Russian applied art in the 18th century was associated with the work of architects Kazakov, Starov, Quarenghi, Cameron, Voronikhin and a number of trained folk artists. But its true glory was created mostly by serf craftsmen who remained unknown - furniture makers, carvers, weavers, stone cutters, jewelers, glass makers, ceramists.

Mid-century style also affects arts and crafts. Products made of porcelain, for example, Elizaveta Petrovna’s “Own” service, and other materials are characterized by curvilinear forms, as well as rich molded ornaments, which go back in design to the shell and flexible plant shoots. The whimsical silhouette of objects is organically combined with bright colors, an abundance of gilding, and the shine of mirror surfaces, complementing the festive picture of the interior.

Painting of the first half of the 18th century

Since the era of Peter the Great, painting has undergone enormous changes. The art of easel painting with its semantic and compositional features is taking shape. Reverse perspective is being replaced by direct and associated conveyance of the depth of space. The most important feature is the depiction of the figure in accordance with the principles of anatomical correctness. New means of transmitting volume are emerging. The most important quality is chiaroscuro, which has replaced the conventionally symbolic contour line. The technique of oil painting itself, with its characteristic specific techniques and system of color relationships, is firmly, although not immediately, entering artistic use. The sense of texture is heightened. The artist gains the ability to convey the specific properties of soft velvet, harsh ermine fur, heavy gold brocade and fine lace. In the plot picture one can trace new principles of interconnection of figures. The depiction of the naked body constitutes a new and difficult task. The structure of painting itself becomes more ramified. Since the beginning of the 18th century, secular art has cultivated various types of easel works, monumental painting in the form of panels and lampshades, and miniature writing. The portrait includes all known varieties - front, chamber, regular and costume, double and paired. Artists master allegorical and mythological subjects. The presence of these features, although revealed at first in a compromise form, allows us to talk about the emergence of a new type of painting.

The first steps towards the development of a portrait are connected with the activities of the painting workshop of the Armory Chamber. The works made by Russian and foreign masters tend to be parsuna in nature. Of all the typological options, parsuna gives preference to a ceremonial portrait and is found in this capacity in several varieties. Among them, the “portrait-thesis” is the most archaic. It combines portrait images and numerous explanatory inscriptions within the conventional icon space. We can also talk about an “apotheosis portrait”. These are portrait-paintings symbolizing the military exploits of Peter I. Ordinary full-length portraits of Peter, Menshikov, Sheremetev and on horseback are also common.

Space is treated everywhere in a very stereotypical manner, and the general arrangement of objects rather serves as a symbolic designation of real spatial relationships. The problem of internal and external space is solved just as conventionally in terms of meaning and scale. Parsuna somewhat departs from the richness of color characteristic of 17th-century icon painting. However, the meticulous rendering of the ornamentation of the robes and various details gives the canvases a heightened decorative quality.

The master does not yet fully master the new principles of conveying volume, combining emphatically convex painted faces and flat patterned clothes. The large size of the canvases, their imposing spirit, the richness of the furnishings and the display of jewelry are intended to illustrate the social significance of what is depicted. The image is autonomous, it is focused on itself and is indifferent to others. Painting, which has not yet matured to convey the individual, in its own way tries to notice the features inherent in a given character. However, the general and the individual have not yet been merged into organic unity, and specific properties barely appear under the combined typifying mask.

The Parsuna line, which existed for a relatively short time, mainly in the 80s and especially in the 90s of the 17th century, subsequently encountered a very strong flow of works by foreigners and retired artists, which practically replaced it. At the same time, one should not think that it turned out to be an accidental episode in the general process of development of Russian portraiture. Having been pushed back from its main positions, the Parsuna continued to exist. In addition, its features appeared in the work of a number of advanced artists as evidence of the incomplete transition from medieval writing to a new manner. In this capacity it can be found in the works of I. Nikitin, I. Vishnyakov and A. Antropov.

Traces of parsunism are also found in the second half of the 18th century, especially in the works of serfs or provincial artists who independently came to the new art, as a rule, starting from icon painting. Let us note that parsunism as an artistic phenomenon exists not only in the Russian school, but also in Ukraine and Poland. It is also found in Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and even in the countries of the Middle East, that is, where painting, in a similar historical situation, experiences a fundamentally similar introduction to the art of modern times and secular art.

Changes in everyday life and their impact on arts and crafts. Features of ornament and decor of the artistic styles of Baroque, Rococo, Classicism.

Silver and gold making: St. Petersburg school, Moscow craftsmen and manufactories, niello silver of Veliky Ustyug. New types of dishes made of precious and non-ferrous metals: teapots, coffee pots, bouillottes, samovars. Household and church utensils. State regalia. Orders and medals. Enamels. Enamel artists A.G. Ovsov, G.S. Musikiysky.

The emergence of Russian porcelain. D.I.Vinogradov. Imperial and private porcelain factories. Majolica, faience. Art glass. Decorative fabrics and tapestries. New in clothes. Cabinet and type-setting furniture. Marquetry. Wooden carvings in civil and church interiors. Crews. Decorative rock. Cameos.

Artistic folk crafts. Carved and inlaid bottom of Gorodets. Bone carving Kholmogory. Gold embroidery of the Tver province. Lace of Galich and Vologda. Ceramics of Gzhel.

Music and theater in the 18th century

Polyphonic choral singing. Edges. Instrumental music and orchestras. Opera art. Ballet. Music in court, city and peasant life. The emergence of a national school of composition. E.I.Fomin. I.E.Khandoshkin. D.S. Bortnyansky. M.S.Berezovsky. A.O. Kozlovsky.

Attempts to create an accessible public theater under Peter the Great. Amateur performances at court. School theaters in religious and secular educational institutions. Professional troupes of foreign actors.

Dramaturgy of Russian classicism: tragedies and comedies. The influence of sentimentalism on the theatrical repertoire. The emergence of drama and comic opera on the Russian stage. A.P. Sumarokov is a playwright and theater figure. The creator of the Russian professional theater, actor and director F.G. Volkov. His friend and follower I.A. Dmitrevsky. Mass theatrical performances.

Fortress theater. Troupe of Count P.B. Sheremetev. P.I. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova, T.V. Shlykova-Granatova and other artists. Palace Theater in Ostankino. People's Theatre.

ABBREVIATIONS FOR THE NAMES OF THE MAIN MUSEUM COLLECTIONS MENTIONED IN THE LIST OF CULTURAL MONUMENTS

BAN - Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg)

VMDPNI - All-Russian Museum of Decorative, Applied and Folk Art (Moscow)

State Historical Museum - State Historical Museum (Moscow)

HMGS - State Museum of Urban Sculpture (St. Petersburg)

GMMK - State Museums of the Moscow Kremlin (Moscow)

GNIMA - State Scientific Research Museum of Architecture (Moscow)

GOP - State Armory Chamber (Moscow)

State Russian Museum - State Russian Museum (St. Petersburg)

Tretyakov Gallery - State Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow)

State Hermitage - State Hermitage Museum (St. Petersburg)

ZIKHMZ - former Zagorsky (now Sergiev Posad) historical and art museum-reserve (Sergiev Posad, Moscow region)

MIFA - Museum of Historical Treasures of Ukraine (Kiev)

MPIB - Museum of Applied Art and Life of the 17th Century "The Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles and the Patriarchal Chambers in the Moscow Kremlin" (Moscow)

GPS - Novgorod United State Museum-Reserve (Novgorod)

NGP - Novgorod Faceted Chamber (Novgorod)

SHM - Samara Art Museum (Samara)

MONUMENTS OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

SECTION I. HISTORY OF RUSSIAN CULTURE IN ANCIENT AND MIDDLE AGES

(UNTIL THE END OF THE 17TH CENTURY)

FOLK WOODEN ARCHITECTURE

CULT BUILDINGS

1. Kletsky churches: Church of Lazarus from the Murom Monastery (14-16 centuries) - Kizhi Nature Reserve; Church of the Deposition of the Robe from the village of Borodavy (15th century) - Kirillo-Belozersky Museum-Reserve; Church of the Transfiguration from the village of Spas-Vezhi (17th century) - Kostroma Museum-Reserve; St. Nicholas Church from the village of Tukholya (17th century) - Novgorod Museum-Reserve "Vitoslavlitsy"; Chapel of Michael the Archangel from the village of Lelikozero (18th century) - Kizhi Museum-Reserve; Church of St. Nicholas from the village of Glotova (18th century) - Suzdal Museum-Reserve.

2. Tent churches: St. Nicholas Church in the village of Lyavlya (16th century); Church of St. George from the village of Vershina (17th century) - Arkhangelsk Museum-Reserve "Malye Korely"; Resurrection Church from the village of Patakino (18th century) - Suzdal Museum-Reserve; Church of the Assumption (18th century) in the city of Kondopoga.