This state is the fruit of the feat of the Russian people, who defended their faith and independence, their ideals on the edge of the European world. Researchers note such features in ancient Russian culture as syntheticity and openness. An original spiritual world was created as a result of the interaction of the heritage and traditions of the Eastern Slavs with the Byzantine culture, and consequently, the traditions of antiquity. The time of formation, as well as the first flowering of Old Russian culture, falls on the period from the 10th to the first half of the 13th centuries (that is, in the pre-Mongol period).

Oral folk art

The traditions of ancient paganism have been preserved primarily in folklore in songs, fairy tales, proverbs, spells, conspiracies, and riddles. IN historical memory epics occupied a special place among the Russian people. They represented heroic tales about brave defenders from the enemies of their native land. Folk storytellers sing about the exploits of Mikula Selyaninovich, Volga, Alyosha Popovich, Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and other heroes (there are more than 50 different main characters in the epics).

They appeal to them to stand up for the fatherland, for the faith. In the epics, interestingly, the motive of defending the country is supplemented by another - the defense of the Christian faith. The most important event was her baptism.

Writing in Rus'

With the adoption of Christianity, writing began to develop rapidly. Although she was known even earlier. As evidence, one can cite the mention of “lines and cuts” dating back to the middle of the first millennium, information about treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, which were drawn up in Russian, a clay vessel near Smolensk with a Cyrillic inscription (the alphabet created by Cyril and Methodius, the enlighteners of the Slavs at the turn of the 10th-11th centuries).

Orthodoxy brought many liturgical books, secular and religious literature in translation to Rus'. Reached us handwritten books: two “Izborniki” of Prince Svyatoslav, dated 1073 and 1076, “Ostromir Gospel”, dating back to 1057. It is claimed that in the 11th-13th centuries there were about 130-140 thousand books with several hundred titles in circulation. By the standards of the Middle Ages, the level of literacy in Ancient Rus' was quite high. There is also other evidence. These are those discovered by archaeologists in Veliky Novgorod in the mid-20th century, as well as inscriptions on handicrafts and the walls of cathedrals, the activities of monastic schools, book collections and the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra and others, according to which the culture and life of Ancient Rus' is studied today.

There was an opinion that Old Russian culture belonged to the “mute” category, that is, it did not have its own original literature. However, this assumption is incorrect. Various genres The literature of Ancient Rus' is presented. These include the lives of saints, chronicles, teachings, journalism, and travel notes. Let us note here the famous “Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which did not belong to any of the genres that existed at that time. Thus, the literature of Ancient Rus' is distinguished by a wealth of trends, styles, and images.

Spinning and weaving

The Old Russian state was distinguished not only by its original culture, but also by its way of life. The life of Ancient Rus' is interesting and original. Residents were engaged in various crafts. For women, the main occupation was spinning and weaving. Russian women had to weave the required amount of fabric to dress their family, usually a large one, and also to decorate the house with towels and tablecloths. It is no coincidence that the spinning wheel was considered a traditional gift among peasants, which was kept with love and passed on from generation to generation.

There was a custom in Rus' to give beloved girls a spinning wheel. own work. The more skillfully the master carved and painted it, the more elegant it looked, the more honor he had. Russian girls gathered for gatherings on winter evenings and took spinning wheels with them to show off them.

Houses in cities

Customs, like life, in ancient Russian cities had a slightly different character than in villages. There were practically no dugouts here (see photo).

The life of Ancient Rus' in cities was reflected in various buildings. City residents most often built two-story houses, which consisted of several rooms. The houses of warriors, clergy, princes, and boyars had their own differences. Large areas of land were necessarily allocated for estates, log houses were built for servants and artisans, as well as various outbuildings. The life of Ancient Rus' was different for different segments of the population, which was reflected in the types of dwellings. Boyar and princely mansions were real palaces. These houses were decorated with expensive carpets and fabrics.

The Russian people lived in fairly large cities. They numbered tens of thousands of inhabitants. Villages and hamlets could have only a few dozen households. Life was preserved in them longer than in cities.

Houses in villages

Residential areas along which various trade routes passed had a higher standard of living. Peasants lived, as a rule, in small houses. In the south, semi-dugouts were common, the roofs of which were often covered with earth.

In Rus', northern huts were two-story, high, with small windows (there could be more than five). Sheds, storerooms and canopies were built to the side of the dwelling. They were all usually under one roof. This type of housing was very convenient for the harsh northern winters. Many elements of the houses were decorated with geometric patterns.

Interior of peasant huts

In Ancient Rus' it was quite simple. The huts in the villages usually did not look rich. The interior of the peasant huts was decorated quite strictly, but elegantly. In front of the icons, in the front corner, there was a large table, which was intended for all members of a given family. Ancient household items in Rus' also included wide benches that stood along the walls. They were decorated with carved edges. Most often, there were shelves above them, which were intended for storing dishes. Household items of Ancient Rus' included a postavets (northern cabinet), which was usually complemented by elegant paintings depicting flowers, birds, horses, as well as pictures allegorically depicting the seasons.

Table in holidays covered with red cloth. They placed carved and painted dishes on it, as well as lights for the torch. Ancient Rus' was famous for its wood craftsmen. They made various dishes. The most beautiful were the ancient Russian ladles of various sizes and shapes. Some of them could accommodate several buckets in volume. Ladles intended for drinking were often boat-shaped. Their handles were decorated with horse heads or carved ducks. The ladles were also generously complemented with carvings and paintings.

Duck ladles were duck-shaped ladles. The chiseled vessels that resembled a ball were called brothers. Beautiful salt shakers, shaped like horses or birds, were carved by wood craftsmen. Beautiful spoons and bowls were also made. Everything related to the life of Ancient Rus' was usually made of wood: cradles for children, mortars, bowls, baskets, furniture. The craftsmen who created furniture not only thought about convenience, but also about beauty. These things certainly had to please the eye, turning even the most difficult work of the peasants into a holiday.

Clothes of various segments of the population

It was also possible to identify different segments of the population by clothing. Peasants and artisans, both men and women, wore shirts that were made from homespun linen. In addition to shirts, men wore pants, and women wore skirts. Ordinary people wore ordinary fur coats in winter.

The shape of the clothing of noble people was often similar to that of peasants, but in quality, of course, it was completely different. Such clothes were created from expensive fabrics. Often cloaks were made from oriental fabrics embroidered with gold. Winter coats were made only from valuable furs. Peasants and townspeople also wore different shoes. Only rich residents could afford to buy boots or pistons (shoes). The princes also wore boots that were richly decorated with inlay. Peasants could only afford to make or purchase bast shoes, which survived in Russian culture until the 20th century.

Feasts and hunting in Ancient Rus'

The hunting and feasts of the ancient Russian nobility were known throughout the world. During such events, the most important state affairs were often decided. The inhabitants of Ancient Rus' publicly and magnificently celebrated their victories in campaigns. Honey and overseas wine flowed like a river. Servants served huge platters of meat and game. These feasts were necessarily attended by mayors and elders from all cities, as well as a huge number of people. It is difficult to imagine the life of the inhabitants of Ancient Rus' without abundant feasts. The tsar feasted with the boyars and retinue on the high gallery of his palace, and the tables for the people were located in the courtyard.

Falconry, hound hunting and hawk hunting were considered the pastime of the rich. For common people Various games, races, and tournaments were built. The life of Ancient Rus' also included a bathhouse as an integral part, especially in the north.

Other features of Russian life

Children in the boyar-princely environment were not raised independently. Boys at the age of three were put on a horse, after which they were given to the care and training of a pestun (that is, a teacher). Young princes at the age of 12 were sent to govern volosts and cities. Wealthy families began teaching literacy to both girls and boys in the 11th century. The Kiev market was a favorite place for ordinary and noble people. It sold items and products from all over the world, including India and Baghdad. The ancient people of Rus' loved to bargain.

Life has always been closely connected with nature and depended on it. Any type of occupation, be it agriculture, cattle breeding or handicrafts, was tied to natural gifts and to the natural conditions that ensured the life of the ancient Russian people. To find out what the life of people was like in Ancient Rus', let's look into their houses. The dwellings of rich people were called mansions (the same as towers). Usually this is a tall wooden structure of two or three floors, or even more, with several domes on the roof in the form of a barrel, tent, wedge or bell, and even decorated with wooden roosters, horses, dogs, suns on the very top. The middle floor of the tower is surrounded by a balcony, which was called a walkway. From the walkway you can get into any cell (i.e. room) on this floor. Behind the mansions, in the depths of the courtyard, there are other buildings: barns, storerooms, cellars, a bathhouse, a well, a stable and others. The staircase leading to the porch is covered. From the porch we will find ourselves in the entryway, and from there the doors go straight, and up, and to the right, and to the left. On the middle floor there is a room - this is the most spacious, front room. And on the lower tier there is a kitchen and other utility rooms, and from here there is a separate passage to the courtyard. And above the upper room are the light rooms, these are individual rooms for the inhabitants of the house and guests. The ceilings in the rooms are low, the windows are small, mica (glass is very expensive) to conserve heat.

In the upper room there are built-in benches along all the walls, there is a large table opposite the door, and above it there is a shrine (a shelf with icons). To the left of the door, in the corner, there is a beautiful stove, which was laid out with multi-colored patterned tiles, on each of which there are various convex designs. In the simple and small huts of the poor people it is dark, they have only two small windows covered with a fish bladder. In the hut to the left of the entrance there is a huge stove. They cooked food in it, slept on it, dried shoes, clothes and firewood. From a different setting: benches along the wall, shelves above them, shelves, in the right corner there is a shrine and a small table. And in the closet there is a small bast chest, and in it everything family values: green caftan, worm-like summer coat, fur coat and a pair of earrings. If in spring, summer and autumn people were busy with household chores, then in winter they could do crafts.

Gradually, some people's craft became their main occupation and source of income. Craftsmen often lived in cities, closer to the bazaar. The products of the masters were not just necessary household items, they were beautiful things created with inspiration, taste and a sense of beauty. Material for folk artist stone, metal, clay, bone, fabric and wood were used - everything that was around in nature. The most accessible material for craftsmen was wood. Dwellings were built from it, tools, vehicles, dishes, furniture, and toys were made. And every thing amazed with its thoughtfulness, perfection of forms, and expressiveness of the silhouette. Folk craftsmen turned even the most ordinary objects made of wood into a work of art: a ladle was turned into a swimming swan, a child’s cradle was decorated with delicate delicate carvings, and winter sleighs looked luxurious with fancy and colorful patterns. Everything made from wood by Russian craftsmen is colored with talent, imagination, a joyful attitude, and a desire for beauty and perfection. Unfortunately, few wooden relics of antiquity have been preserved by time. After all, this is a short-lived material. Wood deteriorates quickly and burns easily. Frequent fires found their prey in wooden architecture, and in the products of master woodworkers. In addition, wood was cheap, and wooden things were not particularly taken care of. Why? After all, you can make new things, even better, more convenient, more beautiful. Fantasy is inexhaustible, hands are golden, the soul cries for beauty. Thus, the life of ancient Russian people speaks about their original culture, nurtured by talented craftsmen and folk craftsmen of the era.

For a long time, housing has been not only an area of ​​satisfying a person’s need for housing, but also a part of his economic and economic life.

Of course, the social differentiation of society was also reflected in the features of the home, its size, and amenities. Each era is characterized by its own special features in residential and commercial buildings and in their complexes.

The study of these features gives us additional knowledge about the past era, provides details not only about the everyday life of past generations, but also about the social and economic aspects of their existence. The end of the 15th and 16th centuries is a kind of milestone in our sources on the history of the material culture of the Russian people, archaeological data, as a rule, does not rise chronologically above the 15th century. Individual observations of archaeologists on material culture XVI - XVII centuries are mined along the way with the study of more early periods and relatively fragmented. Special works on the late Russian Middle Ages are rare, although their data on housing are very valuable for us.

But as archaeological data decreases, the amount of documentary information also increases. Fragmentary and random mentions of housing in chronicles, with which we are forced to be content with periods before the 16th century, are now significantly supplemented by an ever-increasing number of vital records and other official documents. Dry, brief, but very valuable due to its widespread nature, the data from scribal books allows us to make the first generalizations, calculations, and comparisons. various types buildings Here and there in these sources there are also descriptions of interesting details in the characteristics of residential and outbuildings. To this data from written Russian sources, we must add notes from foreigners who visited Russia at this time. Not everything in their observations and descriptions is reliable and clear to us, but many details of Russian life in the 16th century. they noted and conveyed accurately, and much is understood taking into account the comparative study of other sources. Sketches of Russian life, made from outside, also conveyed to us something that was not reflected at all in Russian documents, since for Russian authors much was so familiar that, in their opinion, it was not worth paying special attention to.

Perhaps, only from the 16th century we have the right to talk about the emergence of another type of sources on material culture, the importance of which is difficult to overestimate, various materials of a graphic nature. No matter how accurate written information may be, it gives us best case scenario a list of names of buildings or their parts, but from them it is almost impossible to imagine what they looked like. Only since the 16th century have we come across drawings that quite fully reflect the life of Rus' at that time. The manner of these drawings is sometimes unusually conventional for us, subordinate to certain canons of icon painting or book miniatures, but by looking closely at them, having assimilated to some extent the language of conventions, one can quite accurately imagine the real features of the way of life of that time. Among the monuments of this kind, an outstanding place is occupied by the colossal illustrated Chronicle, created according to the plan and with the participation of Ivan IV in 1553-1570. Thousands of miniatures of this vault provide the researcher with a wonderful visual material on many aspects of Russian life, including housing. They are successfully complemented by some iconographic scenes and miniatures from other books of this era. The social structure of Russian society was also reflected in the system of dividing settlements into certain units, which for the peasantry were simultaneously taxation units, tax units and actually existing settlement cells peasant family. Such units were courtyards. Documents and chronicles know a courtyard, a courtyard place, a courtyard in these two, at first glance, unequal, meanings. Of course, where we are talking about monastery yards, boyars, clerks' yards, clerks' yards, artisans' yards, or even more specific names - cow yard, stable yard, gross yard, we are only dealing with the designation of a certain space occupied by a complex of residential and outbuildings. But for the main tax population, for the peasantry, the concepts of a yard as an estate, a complex of buildings and a yard as a tax unit coincided to a certain extent, since only a full-fledged peasant yard, which had a full set of buildings necessary for farming and living of a peasant family.

The composition of buildings typical of the medieval Russian peasant courtyard has recently caused lively debate. It is believed that the composition of buildings and even those types of buildings that ethnography knows from the life of a Russian village in the 19th century are primordial and almost unchanged in Rus' since ancient times, from the period before Mongolian Rus'. However, the accumulation of archaeological data on ancient Russian housing, a more careful analysis of written sources and medieval graphics cast doubt on this conclusion. Archaeological data quite clearly speaks of a more complex history of the development of the Russian complex of residential and commercial buildings, this was depicted earlier. What seemed most striking minimum quantity buildings for livestock, although there is no doubt that the population had a lot of livestock. For hundreds of open residential buildings, there are literally only a few fundamental buildings for livestock. Equally unusual was the conclusion about the predominance of residential single-chamber buildings. Quite complex types of multi-chamber and two-chamber connections between residential and utility premises were also known, but they constitute a minority. From these facts one inevitably has to draw a conclusion about the gradual and rather complex development of residential complexes, and this development in different geographical zones took its own paths and led to the formation of special zonal types. As far as our sources allow us to judge, the beginning of this process occurs between the 15th and 17th centuries, although the formation of ethnographic types in the 19th century. can hardly be considered completely completed, since by their nature the residential complexes were closely related to changes in the socio-economic life of the population and constantly reflected these changes.

The earliest documentary records about the composition of peasant households depict it to us very succinctly: a hut and a cage. The above extracts from documents of the late 15th century might seem random and atypical if some sources did not allow their typicality to be supported by mass material. One of the scribe books provides a more detailed than usual list of buildings in peasant households abandoned during the tragic events last decade XVI century. The analysis of these inventories gave very revealing results. The overwhelming majority of peasant households were very poor in the composition of buildings: 49% consisted of only two buildings (“hut and cage”, “hut and hay barn”). These documents are confirmed by another, unique source - the Litsevoy Chronicle of the 16th century. It is difficult to say why, but even the latest researchers consider the architectural background of the miniatures of this vault to be borrowed from Byzantine sources. Research by A.V. Artsikhovgov at one time convincingly showed the Russian basis of the nature from which these miniatures were painted, the Russian character of things, everyday details, scenes. And only the dwelling is made dependent on foreign sources and conventions of the “fantastic chamber letter of Russian icon painting.” In fact, the dwelling, which consists mostly of miniature scenes (although there are very realistic images of not only temples, but also ordinary huts and cages), is based on the same Russian reality, the same Russian life, well known to the creators of miniatures as according to the more ancient ones that have not come down to us personal manuscripts, and from our own observations. And among these pictures there are few images of villages. The language of the miniatures of the Facial Vault is distinguished by a certain convention. The pictogram of dwellings is deciphered quite simply. The hut always has three windows and a door on the end wall, and the cage always has two windows and a door. The walls are not lined with logs, do not have the remains of logs in the corners so typical for a log house, and windows and doors for the sake of beauty are smoothed, rounded, equipped with curls, they are difficult to recognize, but they are there and always in a firmly established place, in the traditional quantity for each type of building. Villages, and especially individual peasant households, are rarely depicted, since the main content of the chronicle remains the life of the feudal elite, the feudal city. But where we are talking about villages, they exist, and the pictographic formula for them is built from two buildings, which, based on their characteristics, are easily defined as a hut and a cage. This was, in all likelihood, the real basis of the peasant household, its typical composition until the 16th century.

But for the 16th century, such courtyards were already becoming a relic. Economic recovery after the final liberation from Tatar yoke, liquidation feudal fragmentation, the general ordering of life in a centralized and strong state could not but affect changes in the complex of peasant households. Previously, this process began in the northern regions, where social relations favored this, where harsher nature also required it, later we notice this in the central regions, but it was the 16th century that can be considered the beginning of those changes both in the composition and in the layout of the peasant household, which to 19th century give us an ethnographic diagram of the various types of Russian peasant household. All the main buildings of a peasant yard were log houses - huts, cages, hay barns, moss fields, stables, barns (although there are also references to wattle barns). The main and obligatory element of such a yard was a hut, a heated building, insulated in the grooves with moss, where the peasant’s family lived, where in the winter they studied and worked (weaving, spinning, making various utensils and tools), and here in the cold, livestock also found shelter. As a rule, there was one hut per courtyard, but there were peasant courtyards with two or even three huts, where large undivided families were accommodated. Apparently, already in the 16th century, there was a separation of two main types of peasant housing; in the northern regions, huts on the basement, podizbitsa, i.e. began to dominate. having underground. In such basements they could keep livestock and store supplies. In the central and southern regions, above-ground huts still exist, the floor of which was laid at ground level, and, perhaps, was earthen. But the tradition was not yet established. Above-ground huts are mentioned in documents all the way to Arkhangelsk, and huts on the basements of rich peasants were also erected in the central regions. Here they were often called upper rooms.

According to documentary records about the dwellings of the 16th century, we know of rare cases of mentioning the entryway as part of peasant households. But just in the 16th century, the canopy increasingly began to be mentioned as an element, first of an urban and then of a peasant dwelling, and the canopy definitely served as a connecting link between two buildings - the hut and the cage. But changing the internal layout cannot be considered only formally. The appearance of the entryway as a protective vestibule in front of the entrance to the hut, as well as the fact that the firebox of the hut was now facing the inside of the hut - all this greatly improved the housing, making it warmer and more comfortable. The general rise of culture was reflected in this improvement of housing, although the 16th century was only the beginning of further changes, and the appearance of the canopy, even at the end of the 16th century, became typical for peasant households in many regions of Russia. Like other elements of housing, they first appeared in the northern regions. The second obligatory building of a peasant yard was a cage, i.e. a log building used for storing grain, clothing, and other property of peasants. But not all areas knew the cage as a second utility room.

There is another building that apparently served the same function as the cage. This is a sennik. Of the other buildings of the peasant yard, it is necessary to mention, first of all, barns, since grain farming in the relatively damp climate of Central Russia is impossible without drying the sheaves. Ovins are more often mentioned in documents relating to the northern regions. Cellars are often mentioned, but they are better known to us from urban materials. “Bayna” or “mylna” was equally obligatory in the northern and parts of the central regions, but not everywhere. It is unlikely that the baths of that time were very different from those that can still be found in deep villages - a small log house, sometimes without a dressing room, in the corner - a stove - a heater, next to it - shelves or floors on which to steam, in the corner - a barrel for water, which is heated by throwing hot stones there, and all this is illuminated by a small window, the light from which drowns in the blackness of the smoky walls and ceilings. On top, such a structure often has an almost flat pitched roof, covered with birch bark and turf. The tradition of washing in baths among Russian peasants was not universal. In other places they washed themselves in ovens. The 16th century was the time when buildings for livestock became widespread. They were placed separately, each under its own roof. In the northern regions, already at this time, one can notice a tendency towards two-story buildings of such buildings (a stable, a moss forest, and on them a hay barn, that is, a hay barn), which later led to the formation of huge two-story household courtyards (at the bottom - stables and pens for livestock, at the top - a shed, a barn where hay and equipment are stored, a cage is also placed here). The feudal estate, according to inventories and archaeological information, was significantly different from the peasant one. One of the main features of any feudal court, in a city or in a village, was special watchtowers and defensive towers - povalushi. In the 16th century, such defensive towers were not only an expression of boyar arrogance, but also a necessary construction in case of attack by neighbors - landowners, restless free people. The vast majority of these towers were made of logs, several floors high. The residential building of the feudal court was the upper room. These upper rooms did not always have slanted windows, and not all of them could have had white stoves, but the very name of this building suggests that it was on a high basement. The buildings were log buildings, made from selected timber, had good gable roofs, and on the floors they were of several types - gable, hipped and covered with a figured roof - barrels, etc. The courtyard of a wealthy citizen was similar in composition and names of buildings to the boyars' courtyards, and Russian cities themselves in those days, as was repeatedly noted by foreigners, were still very similar to the sum of rural estates rather than to a city in the modern sense.

We know very little about the homes of ordinary artisans from documents; they did not often have to describe their meager inheritance in legal acts. Archaeologists do not have sufficient information about them either. There were entire settlements of artisans. But many of them lived in the courtyards of monasteries, boyars, and in the courtyards of rich townspeople. Based on materials from the 16th century, it is difficult to distinguish them into a separate group. One might think that the courtyards of artisans in urban suburbs, in terms of the composition of buildings, were closer to peasant courtyards; they did not have a choir of rich people. Stone residential buildings, known in Rus' since the 14th century, continued to remain a rarity in the 16th century. The few residential stone mansions of the 16th century that have reached us amaze with the massiveness of the walls, the obligatory vaulted ceilings and the central pillar supporting the vault. Researchers of ancient architecture and folklore paint us a colorful picture of antiquity as a world of patterned, carved, decorated huts, towers, chambers with chiseled porches and gilded domes. However, our data does not allow us to judge how richly and how the peasant huts and other buildings were decorated. Apparently, peasant huts were decorated very modestly, but some parts of the huts were necessarily decorated; roof ridges, doors, gates, stove.

Comparative materials from ethnography of the 19th century show that these decorations played, in addition to an aesthetic role, the role of amulets that protected “entrances” from evil spirits; the roots of the semantics of such decorations go back to pagan ideas. But the homes of rich townspeople and feudal lords were decorated magnificently, intricately, and colorfully with the hands and talent of the peasants. We know little about the interior decoration of dwellings, although it is unlikely that the interior of peasant huts and artisans' houses was very different from what was typical for the peasantry in the 19th century. But no matter how fragmentary our information is on some elements of the 16th century home, we can still state a significant shift in this area of ​​the culture of the Russian people in the 16th century, associated with general processes historical development countries.

Izba

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Izba. In steppe regions rich in clay, huts (huts) were built instead of huts. In the depths of the hut there was a hearth made of stones. This structure was maintained long time. Since the 15th century, stoves with pipes have become widespread. But, mainly, among princes, boyars, merchants, etc. and only in cities. Some of these huts have survived to this day. The floors in the peasant hut were earthen, that is, the earth was simply trampled down. The floors were made from logs split in half; in rich houses, from planks. The floors were laid along the hut from the entrance. As already mentioned, the hut had no windows as such. The hut was installed directly on the ground or on poles. - Izba.pptx

Russian hut

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Russian hut. A hut on the territory of the museum in the Intercession Monastery in Suzdal. IZBA, Russian log house; heated living space in the house. Construction of a hut. The construction of a house for a peasant was significant event. During construction, the location of the house was important. General view of the hut. A kind of hallway was often attached to the hut - a canopy about 2 m wide. The canopy was also used in other ways. The cage served as a summer bedroom, a year-round storage room, and in winter - a kind of “refrigerator”. The interior space of the hut. Furniture, utensils and decoration of a Russian hut. The main decoration of houses were icons. - Russian hut.ppt

Houses in Rus'

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Educational - methodological manual"traditional life in a Russian house." Home page. Traditional life in a Russian house. Exit. Construction began with the felling of forests and a settlement - a “village” - appeared on the cleared land. It didn't take a day or two to build. First it was necessary to develop the site. They prepared the land for arable land, cut down, and uprooted the forest. They chopped it down, not sawed it: it was believed that the tree would be better preserved this way. This was the experience of centuries-old wooden construction. Back. Table. IZBA is a wooden (log) log residential building. The log house consisted of “crowns”. From the ground to the roof, about 20 such “crowns” had to be collected. - Houses in Russia.ppt

Russian life

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Russian hut. Life of Russian people. Museum "Canavino at the turn of the century". Russian proverbs (explain): Do you like to ride:…… You hurry:….. As you sow, then……. Measure seven times:…. It’s time for business:….. The hut is not red with corners:…… Russian stove. Items of Russian everyday life. Millstone. Pots, jars, bowls. Samovars, jugs, krinkas... Babi kut. Dishes. The setting of the hut. Riddles: There are four legs under the roof, There is soup and spoons on the roof. Table. The bull stands with his barrel akimbo, hissing and boiling, telling everyone to drink tea. Samovar. He walks and walks, but does not enter the hut. Door. The boundaries are wooden and the fields are glass. Windows. In the hut there is a hut, in the hut there is a pipe. - Russian everyday life.ppt

Life of the Russian people

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Project. Photographs of household items, costumes, and production tools are also presented. Winter. Fortune telling about one of the most ancient rituals of the Russian people. Fortune telling most often took place on Christmas, Epiphany and St. Basil's Day. Christmas. Spring. Annunciation The holiday of the Annunciation is one of the most revered for the Russian people. SOWING about the rules and stages of sowing grain. Summer. Haymaking. Autumn. Picking berries and mushrooms. EXCELLENCE on the Feast of the Exaltation of the Honest and Life-Giving Cross of the Lord. Spinning. Tree Origins and roots of the Russian people Traditions and rituals of the Russian people. - Life of the Russian people.ppt

Culture and life of Rus'

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Culture and life of Ancient Rus'. Europeans called Rus' “Gradariki” - a country of cities. Medieval cities were centers of culture. The largest in Europe were Kyiv, Novgorod, Galich. Behind the fortress walls, crafts developed around 70 years ago. Many goods were for sale. Urban development. Torzhok. 16th century engraving. Plan of Kyiv in the middle of the 12th century. As a rule, the Golden Gate was built at the entrance. Scientists find many inscriptions on the walls and birch bark. Golden Gate in Vladimir. Reconstruction. Typical view of boyar mansions. Most of the buildings of Kievan Rus were wooden. - Culture and life of Russia.ppt

Russian national cuisine

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Russian national cuisine. Old Russian cuisine IX-XVI centuries.1. Old Russian cuisine of the 9th-16th centuries.2. Cuisine of the Moscow state of the 17th century. Kitchen of the Peter and Catherine era of the 18th century. St. Petersburg cuisine late 18th century - 60s of the 19th century. All-Russian national cuisine 60s of the XIX - early XX centuries. Modern cuisine from 1917 to the present 1. The main place on the Russian table, especially on the national table, was and is occupied by bread. Soups remained of primary importance in the history of Russian cuisine. The spoon has always been the main cutlery of Russians. Modern cuisine from 1917 to the present 2. - Russian national cuisine.ppt

Folk costume

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Tula folk costume. Kursk folk costume. Oryol folk costume with a poneva and a red apron. Tambov folk costume with a top. Voronezh folk costume with poneva. Nizhny Novgorod folk costume. - Folk costume.pps

National costumes

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National costumes. National men's suit. In the past, the Kyrgyz costume had territorial differences associated with the settlement of tribes. Women's national costume. Conclusion. We met the Kyrgyz national costumes. We learned the names of women's and men's hats. All costumes are beautifully decorated with ornaments. - National costumes.ppt

Russian folk costume

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Russian folk costume. The soul of the people is reflected in clothes. Russian costume surprises with its diversity. Each pattern and cut has its own story. By clothing you can learn about the traditions and customs of your people. Peasants sewed clothes from simple fabrics - linen, wool. A boyar costume could weigh 15-20 kg. In Rus', the main clothing for women was a sundress and an embroidered shirt. They put a soul warmer on top. If the sleeves were lowered, then it was impossible to do any work. Hence the expression - to do it carelessly. Sundresses could be different colors: red, blue, brown... At that time, only natural dyes were used for fabric. - Russian folk costume.pps

Finnish clothing

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Folk clothing Finns. Folk clothing, the result of the creativity of many generations, is an integral part of cultural heritage Finns. The clothes differed in composition, method of wearing, cut, material, color scheme, ornament. Local peculiarities existed in each county, and initially in a separate church parish (Kirchspiel). On turn of the 19th century– In the 20th century, Finnish folk clothing fell out of use almost everywhere. Folk clothing of the Finns of the Vyborg province. -

From the first decades of its existence, the Old Russian state was distinguished by the existence of stable everyday traditions and customs. The wooden Russian hut has not changed its appearance for many centuries and retained certain functional and design features. This indicated that the inhabitants of the eastern part of Europe from ancient times were able to find the best combinations of natural elements provided by the environment.

Most of the dwellings of that time were above-ground or half-dugout huts with wooden or earthen floors. Quite often, basements were built in them - lower rooms used for livestock and storage of various things.

Wealthy people of noble origin owned houses made of several log houses with porches, stairs and passages. Depending on the financial situation of the family, the situation in the house could be different. People with less income were content with wooden benches, tables and benches located along the walls, while the rich could also boast of stools covered with paintings and carvings, and small stools intended for feet. The huts were illuminated by rays inserted into a metal light or stove crevices. Wealthy people had wooden or metal candlesticks with tallow candles in their homes.

Merchants, boyars and princes dressed in long clothes with embroideries and precious stones, and the poor wore simple shirts with belts made of homespun cloth. In the winter months, ordinary people wore bear coats and bast shoes, while the rich wore casings and coats made of expensive furs, opash and single-row furs. Noble women also purchased fur coats and opashins and wore letniki, cortels and padded warmers, made of velvet, expensive foreign cloth, decorated with pearls, sables and stones. Monks could also afford expensive clothes.

The poor people made dishes from wood and clay; only a few objects were created from copper and iron. Wealthy members of society used metal and sometimes gold or silver utensils. In ordinary homes, bread was baked from rye flour. Here they consumed products grown on their own. Also, ordinary people were engaged in the manufacture different drinks- bread kvass, beer and honey. However, more varied and plentiful dishes appeared on the table of the rich. Old Russian life had significant differences in different layers of society, which was reflected in all spheres of life.

HOW WE DRESSED IN THE OLD TIMES

The ancient clothing of the Russian nobility in its cut was generally similar to the clothing of people of the lower class, although it differed greatly in the quality of material and decoration. The body was fitted with a wide shirt that did not reach the knees, made of simple canvas or silk, depending on the wealth of the owner. An elegant shirt, usually red, had the edges and chest embroidered with gold and silk, and a richly decorated collar was fastened at the top with silver or gold buttons (it was called a “necklace”). In simple, cheap shirts, the buttons were copper or replaced with cufflinks with loops. The shirt was worn over the underwear. Short ports or trousers were worn on the legs without a cut, but with a knot that made it possible to tighten or expand them in the belt at will, and with pockets (zep). Pants were made from taffeta, silk, cloth, as well as from coarse woolen fabric or canvas.

Over the shirt and pants, a narrow sleeveless zipun made of silk, taffeta or dyed fabric was worn, with a narrow small collar fastened at the bottom. The zipun reached to the knees and usually served as home clothing.

An ordinary and widespread type of outerwear worn over a zipun was a caftan with sleeves reaching to the toes, which were gathered into folds, so that the ends of the sleeves could replace gloves, and in winter serve as a muff. On the front of the caftan, along the slit on both sides, stripes were made with ties for fastening. The materials for the caftan were velvet, satin, damask, taffeta, mukhoyar (Bukhara paper fabric) or simple dyeing. In elegant caftans, a pearl necklace was sometimes attached behind the standing collar, and a “wrist” decorated with gold embroidery and pearls was fastened to the edges of the sleeves; the floors were trimmed with braid and lace embroidered with silver or gold. “Turkish” caftans without a collar, which had fasteners only on the left side and at the neck, differed in their cut from “stanovoy” caftans with an interception in the middle and with button fastenings. Among the caftans, they were distinguished by their purpose: dining, riding, rain, “smirnaya” (mourning). Winter caftans made with fur were called “caftans”.

Sometimes a “feryaz” (ferez) was worn over the zipun, which was an outer garment without a collar, reaching to the ankles, with long sleeves tapering towards the wrist; it was fastened in front with buttons or ties. Winter feryazis were made with fur, and summer ones with a simple lining. In winter, sleeveless fairies were sometimes worn under the caftan. Elegant fairies were made of velvet, satin, taffeta, damask, cloth and decorated with silver lace.

Cover-up clothing that was worn when leaving the house included odnoryadka, okhaben, opashen, yapancha, fur coat, etc. Odnoryadka - wide, long-skirted clothing without a collar, with long sleeves, with stripes and buttons or ties - was usually made from cloth and other woolen fabrics; in the fall and in bad weather it was worn both in sleeves and saddled. The okhaben was similar to the single-row shirt, but it had a turn-down collar that went down the back, and the long sleeves folded back and there were holes under them for the arms, just like in the single-row shirt. A simple okhaben was made of cloth, mukhoyar, and an elegant one was made of velvet, obyari, damask, brocade, decorated with stripes and fastened with buttons. The cut of the opashen was slightly longer at the back than at the front, and the sleeves tapered towards the wrist. Opashni were made of velvet, satin, obyari, damask, decorated with lace, stripes, and fastened with buttons and loops with tassels. Opashen was worn without a belt (“on opash”) and saddled. The sleeveless yapancha (epancha) was a cloak worn in bad weather. The traveling yapancha made of coarse cloth or camel hair differed from the elegant yapancha made of good fabric, lined with fur.

A fur coat was considered the most elegant clothing. Not only was it worn when going out into the cold, but the custom allowed the owners to sit in fur coats even while receiving guests. Simple fur coats were made from sheepskin or hare fur; martens and squirrels were higher in quality; noble and rich people had coats made of sable, fox, beaver or ermine. Fur coats were covered with cloth, taffeta, satin, velvet, obyaryu or simple dyeing, decorated with pearls, stripes and fastened with buttons with loops or long laces with tassels at the end. “Russian” fur coats had a turn-down fur collar. “Polish” fur coats were made with a narrow collar, with fur cuffs and were fastened at the neck only with a cufflink (double metal button).

Foreign imported fabrics were often used to sew men's clothing, and they preferred bright colors, especially “worm-like” (crimson). Colored clothing, worn on special occasions, was considered the most elegant. Only boyars and duma people could wear clothes embroidered with gold. The stripes were always made from a material of a different color than the clothing itself, and for rich people they were decorated with pearls and precious stones. Simple clothes were usually fastened with tin or silk buttons. Walking without a belt was considered indecent; The nobility's belts were richly decorated and sometimes reached several arshins in length.

As for shoes, the cheapest were bast shoes made of birch bark or bast and shoes woven from wicker twigs; To wrap the legs, they used onuchi made from a piece of canvas or other fabric. In a wealthy environment, shoes were shoes, chobots and ichetigs (ichegi) made of yuft or morocco, most often in red and yellow.

Chobots looked like a deep shoe with a high heel and a pointed toe turned up. Elegant shoes and boots were made of satin and velvet of different colors, decorated with embroidery made of silk and gold and silver threads, and trimmed with pearls. Dressy boots were the footwear of the nobility, made from colored leather and morocco, and later from velvet and satin; the soles were padded with silver nails, and the high heels with silver horseshoes. Ichetygs were soft morocco boots.

When wearing elegant shoes, woolen or silk stockings were worn on the feet.

Russian hats were varied, and their shape had its own meaning in everyday life. The top of the head was covered with tafya, a small cap made of morocco, satin, velvet or brocade, sometimes richly decorated. A common headdress was a cap with a longitudinal slit in the front and back. Less wealthy people wore cloth and felt caps; in winter they were lined with cheap fur. Decorative caps were usually made of white satin. Boyars, nobles and clerks on ordinary days wore low, quadrangular-shaped hats with a “rim” around the cap made of black-brown fox, sable or beaver fur; In winter, such hats were lined with fur. Only princes and boyars had the right to wear high “gorlat” hats made of expensive furs (taken from the throat of a fur-bearing animal) with a cloth top; in their shape they expanded somewhat upward. On ceremonial occasions, the boyars put on a tafya, a cap, and a gorlat hat. It was customary to keep a handkerchief in a hat, which was held in the hands while visiting.

In the winter cold, hands were warmed with fur mittens, which were covered with plain leather, morocco, cloth, satin, and velvet. “Cold” mittens were knitted from wool or silk. The wrists of the elegant mittens were embroidered with silk, gold, and trimmed with pearls and precious stones.

As decoration, noble and rich people wore an earring in their ear, a silver or gold chain with a cross on their neck, and rings with diamonds, yachts, and emeralds on their fingers; Personal seals were made on some rings.

Only nobles and military men were allowed to carry weapons; This was prohibited for townspeople and peasants. According to custom, all men, without distinction social status, left the house with a staff in their hands.

Some women's clothing was similar to men's. Women wore a long shirt, white or red, with long sleeves, embroidered and decorated at the wrists. Over the shirt they put on a letnik - a light garment that reached to the toes with long and very wide sleeves (“caps”), which were decorated with embroidery and pearls. Letniki were sewn from damask, satin, obyari, taffeta of different colors, but worm-shaped ones were especially valued; a slit was made in the front, which was fastened all the way to the neck.

A necklace in the form of a braid, usually black, embroidered with gold and pearls, was fastened to the pilot's collar.

Women's outerwear was a long cloth opashen, which had a long row of buttons from top to bottom - tin, silver or gold. Under the long sleeves of the opashny, slits were made under the arms for the arms, and a wide round fur collar was fastened around the neck, covering the chest and shoulders. The hem and armholes of the opashnya were decorated with embroidered braid. A long sundress with sleeves or sleeveless, with armholes, was widespread; The front slit was fastened from top to bottom with buttons. A quilted jacket was worn over the sundress, with the sleeves tapering towards the wrist; These clothes were made from satin, taffeta, obyari, altabas (gold or silver fabric), baiberek (twisted silk). Warm quilted jackets were lined with marten or sable fur.

Various furs were used for women's fur coats: marten, sable, fox, ermine and cheaper ones - squirrel, hare. Fur coats were covered with cloth or silk fabrics of different colors. In the 16th century, it was customary to sew women's fur coats in white, but in the 17th century they began to be covered with colored fabrics. A slit made in the front, with stripes on the sides, was fastened with buttons and bordered with an embroidered pattern. The collar (necklace) lying around the neck was made from a different type of fur than the fur coat; for example, with a marten coat - from a black-brown fox. The decorations on the sleeves could be removed and were kept in the family as an inherited value.

On ceremonial occasions, noble women wore a privolok on their clothes, that is, a sleeveless worm-colored cape made of gold, silver woven or silk fabric, richly decorated with pearls and precious stones.

On the head married women they wore “hairdressers” in the form of a small cap, which for rich women was made of gold or silk material with decorations on it. To remove a hair lock and “unhair” a woman, according to the concepts of the 16th-17th centuries, meant causing great dishonor to a woman. Above the hairline, the head was covered with a white scarf (ubrus), the ends of which, decorated with pearls, were tied under the chin. When leaving home, married women put on a “kika”, which surrounded their head in the form of a wide ribbon, the ends of which were connected at the back of the head; the top was covered with colored fabric; the front part - the necklace - was richly decorated with pearls and precious stones; The headband could be separated or attached to another headdress, depending on need. At the front of the kick were pearl threads (lower) hanging down to the shoulders, four or six on each side. When leaving home, women put on a brimmed hat with falling red cords or a black velvet hat with a fur trim over the ubrus.

The kokoshnik served as a headdress for both women and girls. It looked like a fan or fan attached to a hairline. The headband of the kokoshnik was embroidered with gold, pearls or multi-colored silk and beads.

The girls wore crowns on their heads, to which pearl or bead pendants (robes) with precious stones were attached. The maiden crown always left the hair open, which was a symbol of girlhood. By winter, girls from wealthy families were sewn with tall sable or beaver hats (“columns”) with a silk top, from under which loose hair or a braid with red ribbons woven into it flowed down the back. Girls from poor families wore headbands that tapered at the back and fell down their backs with long ends.

Women and girls of all segments of the population decorated themselves with earrings, which were varied: copper, silver, gold, with yachts, emeralds, “sparks” (small stones). Earrings made from a single gemstone were rare. The decorations for the hands were bracelets with pearls and stones, and on the fingers there were rings and rings, gold and silver, with small pearls.

The rich neck decoration of women and girls was a monisto, consisting of precious stones, gold and silver plaques, pearls, and garnets; In the old days, a row of small crosses was hung from the monist.

Moscow women loved jewelry and were famous for their pleasant appearance, but in order to be considered beautiful, according to Moscow people of the 16th-17th centuries, one had to be portly, curvy woman, rouged and made up. The slender figure and grace of a young girl were of little value in the eyes of beauty lovers of that time.

According to Olearius' description, Russian women had average height, slender build, had a gentle face; the city dwellers all blushed, tinted their eyebrows and eyelashes with black or brown paint. This custom was so ingrained that when the wife of the Moscow nobleman, Prince Ivan Borisovich Cherkasov, a beauty in her own right, did not want to blush, the wives of other boyars convinced her not to neglect the custom of her native land, not to disgrace other women, and they achieved that this naturally beautiful woman I was forced to give in and apply blush.

Although, in comparison with rich noble people, the clothes of the “black” townspeople and peasants were simpler and less elegant, nevertheless, in this environment there were rich outfits that accumulated from generation to generation. Clothes were usually made at home. And the very cut of ancient clothing - without a waist, in the form of a robe - made it suitable for many.

HOME EQUIPMENT AND Utensils

The interior decoration in the houses of the nobility and large merchants was very different in its richness from the simple furnishings in the simple huts of the “black” townspeople.

The floor in the rooms was usually covered with matting or felt, and in rich houses - with carpets. Along the walls, tightly attached to them, there were wooden benches, upholstered with wicker matting or fabric; in wealthy houses, the shops were covered on top with cloth or silk “shelves” that hung all the way to the floor. The room furniture was complemented by special benches, up to two arshins wide, which had a raised platform (headrest) at one end, so that one could rest more comfortably on the benches after lunch. Quadrangular stools (columns) were used for seating. The long narrow tables standing in front of the shops, most often made of oak, were often decorated with artistic carvings; Small tables decorated with colored stones were also found in rich rooms. Custom required that tables be covered with tablecloths, on which, during meals, more tablecloths were laid: cloth or velvet, embroidered with gold and silver. “Black” townspeople used coarse linen tablecloths or did without them at all.

An integral part of each room were icons hanging on the wall. The edges of the icon were often enclosed in a silver or gold frame, and it was placed in an icon case. The material for icons was most often wood, less often stone or white bone; Metal folding doors were also made with doors that had images on the inside and outside. Icons with lamps and wax candles in front of them were placed in the front corner of the room and could be covered with a curtain called a “dungeon.” In wealthy houses there was a special “cross” room, all filled with icons, where home prayer took place.

Wall mirrors, even in rich mansions, were then a great rarity, and small foreign mirrors were widespread. As for wall paintings, they appeared on sale in Moscow towards the end of the 17th century.

As a bed, they used a bench that stood against the wall, to which they moved another, wide one, and laid out a bed, which in rich houses consisted of feather beds, a headboard, pillows in elegant pillowcases, linen or silk sheets and a satin blanket lined with expensive fur. However, luxuriously decorated beds were only in the houses of the nobility and the rich. For the majority of the population, felt served as a bed, or they slept on a stove, blankets, or wooden benches, with a fur coat or other clothing underneath.

Household items were stored in chests and hideaways, that is, chests of drawers. Women's jewelry was preserved in artistically decorated caskets and passed on by inheritance as family jewelry. Pocket watches were very rare, but wall clocks were often brought to us from abroad. It is known that Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich was a great lover and collector of watches. According to the descriptions of foreigners, in the house of the boyar Artamon Sergeevich Matveev, in one of the chambers, which had a wooden floor made of square floorboards, there was a large tiled stove, a chandelier hung from the ceiling, and parrots and other beautiful birds sat in cages hanging around; along with wall paintings, a large mirror and a table of artistic work, there were clocks of different designs: on some the hands showed the time from noon - the astronomical day, on others - from sunset, on others - from sunrise, on the fourth the day began at midnight, like this was accepted in the Latin Church. However, in home life, the so-called “fighting clock” was more common, where the dial rotated, not the hand.

Wax candles were used for lighting, and tallow candles were used in low-income homes; They also used a dry splinter from birch or spruce. Candles were inserted into “wall” candlesticks or into “standing” candlesticks, small in size, which could be rearranged according to need. If in the evening it was necessary to go to the stable or barn, then they used a mica lantern for lighting.

Household supplies were stored in barrels, tubs and baskets standing in cages. Kitchen utensils were meager and primitive; fried in iron and tinned copper frying pans; the dough was kneaded in wooden vats and troughs.

Washstands used for washing were made of copper, tin and even silver. When it was necessary to cook food for a large number of people, the cooks used copper or iron “food” boilers with a capacity of several buckets. Beer and wine boilers had a significant capacity - up to 50 buckets.

Tableware for liquid food wooden, tin or silver bowls were served, and for roast dishes - wooden, clay, tin, tinned copper or silver dishes. The plates were rarely used and even less frequently washed; Instead of plates, flat cakes or slices of bread were usually used. Even less common were knives and forks (at that time they were two-pronged). For lack of napkins, while sitting at the table, they wiped their hands with the edge of the tablecloth or a towel. The vessels in which all kinds of drinks were brought to the table were varied: valley, bucket, quarter, brother, etc. The valley, which was often used, had a capacity of one or several buckets. The quarter was shaped like a soup cup and in its full measure was a quarter of a bucket (quart), but in reality it was made in different sizes. Bratina, intended for a friendly treat, was like a pot with a tire; Wine was scooped from the bratina using ladles or scoops.

The vessels from which the hosts and guests drank had the following names: mugs, bowls, goblets, crusts, ladles, cups. The mugs usually had a cylindrical shape, somewhat narrowed at the top, but there were tetrahedral and octagonal mugs. A full measure mug was one eighth of a bucket. Round, wide vessels with handles or brackets were called “bowls.” Cups were round vessels with a lid and a stand. Unlike ladles with their oval bottom, the crusts had a flat bottom. Small-sized glasses round shape with a flat bottom sometimes had legs and a tire. According to ancient custom, horns set in silver were also used for drinking wine.

In the houses of noble and wealthy people, precious silver and gilded vessels were placed as decoration in the shelves that occupied the middle of the front room. Inscriptions were usually made on such vessels, containing a saying or dedication to the person to whom the vessel was presented as a gift.