Part of speech- this is a category of words in a language, which is determined by syntactic and morphological features. In the languages ​​of the world, first of all, a name (further divided into a noun, adjective, etc.) and a verb are contrasted. It is also generally accepted to divide parts of speech into independent and auxiliary. In the article Morphological analysis you can see many additional characteristics of parts of speech.

Independent parts of speech(include words naming objects, their actions and various signs):
1. Noun
2. Verb
3. Adjective
4. Numeral
5. Pronoun
6. Adverb
7. Participle
8. Participle
9. State category words

Functional parts of speech(they do not name objects, actions, or characteristics, but express only the relationships between them):
1. Pretext
2. Particles
3. Unions
4. Interjections, onomatopoeic words.

Noun

A noun is a part of speech that is used to designate an object. The noun answers the questions: who? What? (dad, song). They are distinguished by gender, and nouns change by case and number. They can be animate (person) and inanimate (house).

Adjective

Qualitative adjectives are adjectives that denote a property of an object that can manifest itself with different intensities: fast, white, old. Qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison and short forms: fast, white, old. Relative adjectives are adjectives that denote a property of the object itself in its relation to an action or another object: iron, measuring, door, inflatable. Possessive adjectives are adjectives that indicate that the object they define belongs to someone or something: sisters, fathers, foxes.

Numeral

A numeral is a part of speech that means:

• number of items, answering the question: How many?, these are cardinal numbers: three, fifteen, one hundred thirty-five;
• order of objects when counting, answering the question: which?, these are ordinal numbers: third, fifteenth, one hundred and thirty-fifth;
• the total number of objects is a collective numeral: both, two, four, six, nine, etc.

Pronoun

A pronoun is a part of speech that indicates a person, sign or object without naming it. Pronouns are divided into:

• personal: we, I, you, you, she, it, he, they;
• reflexive: self;
• possessive: our, mine, yours, yours, yours;
• interrogative-relative: what, who, which, which, whose, how many, which, which;
• demonstrative: that, this, such, so much, such;
• definitive: most, himself, all, all, all, everything, each, every, other, any;
• negative: nothing, no one's, nothing, no one, no one;
• indefinite: some, something, some, someone, several, something, someone, some, something, any.

Learn more about pronouns for beginners in the video:

Verb

A verb is a part of speech that denotes a state or action and answers any of the questions: what to do?, what did you do?, what is he doing?, what will it do?, and has the characteristics of aspect, person, voice, tense, number, gender and mood (in the subjunctive mood, in the past tense). There are such forms of verbs: infinitive, participle and gerund.

1. The infinitive is an indefinite form without signs of person, tense, number, voice, gender or mood: sleep, run, read.
2. Participle– the unconjugated form of the verb, denotes the action or state of an object in a time-varying form; The participle can change by case, number and gender, and also has signs of aspect, tense and voice (this is what differs from the adjective). Participles, in turn, are divided into several types:
3. A real participle is an action performed by the bearer of the attribute: a blossoming garden, a student reading;
4. Passive participle is a sign that arose as a result of the influence of something or someone on the bearer of the sign: leaves driven by the wind, a thrown stone.
5. Participle- this is an unchangeable form of the verb, denotes an action as a sign of another action: exhausted, he sat down on a bench; spoke without looking into the eyes. It differs from the participle in that it has signs of voice and aspect, but does not change.

Adverb

An adverb is a part of speech that denotes a sign of a quality, action or object, answering the question: When?, How?, Where?, Why? etc. The main feature of an adverb is immutability: yesterday, slowly, everywhere, etc. adverbs also include pronominal adverbs: nowhere, where, so, no way, how, when, sometimes, never, from where, from here, to where , there, why, therefore, because, why, then, etc.

Pretext

A preposition is an unchangeable auxiliary part of speech used to connect words: to, in, with, from, on, at, between, through, for, during, through, around, like, about, relatively, thanks to, according to, after, really, despite, due to, in connection with, depending on, in relation to, etc.

Union

A conjunction is an unchangeable auxiliary part of speech that serves to connect members of a sentence and (or) parts of a complex sentence (it is necessary to distinguish a conjunction from prepositions; a preposition connects words, not syntactic units). Types of unions:

1. coordinating conjunctions: yes, and, a, or, but, either, also, too.
2. Subordinating conjunctions: before, when, while, so that, that, how, because, since, due to the fact that, as if, so that, as if, once, if, although, in order that, despite the fact that, not only ... but also..., not so much... as... etc.

Particle

Particles are function words that give semantic or emotional shades to individual words or sentences: neither, not, something, -either, -that, -sya (s), -those, -ka, -de, would it happen, would it be, yes, let it be, even, even, only, really, almost, at least, only, perhaps, give, really, know, well, come on, they say, after all, they say, well, as if, as if , exactly, like, as if, supposedly, perhaps, tea, maybe, exactly, just, almost, or something, almost, etc.

Bundle

A copula is a function word that has broken away from the pronoun or verb paradigm. A connective indicates the syntactic relationships between the components of a sentence. Connectives include words, phrases, conjugated forms of verbs, verb forms be, for example: this, this is, is, appear, mean, appear, be called, mean. Often connectives are omitted and a dash is placed in their place in the sentence, for example: A car is not a luxury, but a means of transportation.

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All parts of speech that form the Russian language system can be divided into three large groups:

1. Significant parts of speech. This includes nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns, adverbs, numerals, which have in their morphological characteristics characteristics of two parts of speech at once: participles (verb + adjective) and gerunds (verb + adverb).

2. Service. They include conjunctions, prepositions and particles.

3. And, as a completely separate group, interjections and onomatopoeic words.

Each part of speech has its own characteristics in writing and use. And most often problems arise with the correct spelling of function words. This is due to the fact that many prepositions, conjunctions and particles are formed from significant words, and sometimes it can be very difficult to understand what is in front of you - an independent word with a preposition or a derived preposition.

First you need to understand that all prepositions can be divided into primitives and derivatives. Antiderivatives are those that have existed in the rules of the Russian language since time immemorial, and it is impossible to confuse them with anything: “to”, “on”, “from”, “to”, “from”, “because of”, “ with”, “about”, “under”, “above”, etc.

Derivatives are those prepositions that are formed from the merger of the significant part of speech with the primitive preposition: “in view of” (= “because of”), “during”, “in depth”, “through”, “in role”, etc. . Very often, derived prepositions can be easily replaced with synonymous primitives, and then it will immediately become clear which part of speech we have: either a significant one with a preposition, or a derived preposition.

Conjunctions are a part of speech that expresses grammatical relationships between members of a simple sentence or parts of a complex sentence. Since complex sentences are divided into compound and complex sentences, the same classification is appropriate in relation to conjunctions, only they will be divided into coordinating and subordinating. Thus, a conjunction is easy to identify by determining what relationships within one sentence it expresses.

The particle is perhaps the most numerous and complex functional part of speech, and it is sometimes very difficult to determine. The main function of a particle is to add additional nuance to a single word or part of a sentence. Sometimes it can also carry a formative meaning.

Now, actually, about spelling. According to their spelling, function words can be divided into the following groups:

1. Written together:

a) Prepositions that have the meaning of an adverb and are also formed by merging a noun with a primitive preposition: “in depth”, “instead”, “in the middle”, “towards”, “in view of”, etc. These prepositions have the meaning of time, reason, place, direction, etc. and can be replaced by synonymous primitive prepositions:

• I gave a new camera for the old one and I gave a new camera for the old one;
• He sat in the middle of the stones and He sat between the stones;
• The merchant came out to meet the guests and the Merchant came out to the guests;

b) Prepositions that were formed by merging a noun with a primitive preposition: “instead”, “as a result”, “about”, “over”, etc. Such prepositions always have an objective meaning, because they are formed from the name of a noun, and are often replaced by primitive prepositions synonymous with them.

c) Conjunctions formed by merging a pronoun with a primitive preposition: “but”, “why”, “besides”, “then”, etc. If we have a preposition with a pronoun, then in this case the spelling will be separate:

• I thought and then bought another tie and I saw a boar behind that tree;
• I don’t know why I don’t love you anymore and Which way will we walk today: on the grass or on the road?

d) Conjunctions formed by merging particles or non-derivative conjunctions with pronouns or pronominal adverbs. These include: the conjunction “so that”, “so”, “also”, “also”;

e) Conjunctions formed by merging a particle with a non-derivative conjunction: “if”, “than”, “would it be”, “is it possible”, “allegedly”, “even”, “so that”, “if only”. However, the conjunctions “as if”, “as if”, “if”, “as if” are always written separately.

Note. Complex conjunctions “because”, “because”, “so that”, “for nothing”, etc. are always written separately.

2. Written with a hyphen:

a) Complex prepositions “because of”, “from under”, “on-over”, “for”.

b) words with particles “-to”, “-or”, “something”, “some-”, “-ka”, “-de”, “-s”: someone, somewhere, yes- s, swoop in, etc.

Note 1. The pronouns “someone” and “something” when changing their form (case) are written separately: some after someone, some at something, etc.

Note 2. The particle “taki” is written with a hyphen if it is part of the words “still” and “so-taki”, as well as if it is used in the position after the verb: I came, I overslept. In all other cases it is written separately:

• I still didn’t guess who it was;
• The cat is a very dangerous animal.

3. Written separately:

a) Particles “would”, “li”, “whether”, with the exception of the cases mentioned above;

b) all other particles, including “after all”, “they say”, “what” in combinations “so far”, “just now”, “almost”, “unless”, etc.

Preposition, conjunction, particle are not independent, but auxiliary parts of speech. This means that they themselves are not able to name objects, properties, states, or actions. Sentences can do without them, while they themselves, without participation, cannot form a sentence. However, the role of function words in speech should not be underestimated: prepositions, conjunctions and particles are needed to express semantic and formal relationships between independent words within sentences. Servants themselves never act as members of a sentence.

Morphological feature

All conjunctions, particles, prepositions have their own morphological characteristics. The only thing they have in common can be called immutability. Now let's look at each of these auxiliary parts of speech in detail.

Pretext

A conjunction or a particle connects (the first) and adds shades of meaning to words (the second). And the task of a preposition in a sentence or phrase is to connect words into correct grammatical structures. For example: going to school, playing the piano, jumping over a fence, studying for a year, etc.

There are three types of prepositions in composition.

• Simple: in, on, to, under, over, behind, before, at, before, through, etc.
• Complex: from under, because of, etc.
• Compounds: due to, during, despite, in relation to, etc.

According to their origin and method of formation, prepositions can be derivative, that is, appearing from other parts of speech, and non-derivative.

• can be formed from adverbs: around, along, near, etc.
• They can appear from nominal parts of speech: during, in relation to, about, at the expense of, in view of, etc.
• They can also come from verbs: thanks, after, including, etc.

Together or separately?

Spelling of prepositions, conjunctions and particles is usually reduced to continuous, separate or spelling using a hyphen.

• We write the following prepositions together:

along, contrary to, in view of, like, instead of, as a result of, about, by means of.

• We write prepositions separately:

during, in conclusion, in continuation, for the purposes of, in virtue of, to the extent of, for the reason.

• We write prepositions with a hyphen:

from behind, from under, over.

Semantic connections

What relationships between significant words can prepositions express? Let us note that conjunctions and particles also have their own service meanings, which we will discuss below.

Prepositions express the following meanings:

• object: I miss you By you, think about it O us, stood up behind him at the meeting;
• spatial: left behind borders of the country, I'm passing near theater, I will live on Alaska;
• temporary: I'll come in through I'll find you in a week during day; in continuation It rained heavily for weeks;
• target: fight behind idea, live for the sake of truth, give on memory;
• causal: didn’t fly away because of bad weather, found thanks to friends, lagged behind because of illness;
• qualifier: trousers V strip, simulator With timer, fur With undercoat;
• comparative: size With nail, face out V mother, and character - V father;
• mode of action: laugh through strength, think With tension, watch without of special interest.

How to distinguish prepositions from other parts of speech?

Sometimes the auxiliary part of speech - a preposition, conjunction, particle - can be incorrectly recognized as independent. However, there are techniques by which you can clearly differentiate them.

• To avoid confusing a preposition with an adverb, you need to make sure that it is followed by a noun or pronoun. Compare: A bee was flying around a bowl of jam / a bowl of jam was standing on the table, a bee was flying around.
• The difference between a preposition and a combination of a noun and a preposition is indicated by the ending. In a preposition it is unchanged, but in a noun it can change when used with different prepositions: during the season / during the rivers, to the flow of rivers, from the flow of rivers, behind the flow of rivers, etc.
• Pretext despite similar to a gerund, but different in meaning. For example: despite the rain, the match took place / despite me, he quickly left the room. The meaning of the first sentence with a preposition: although it was raining, the match was not cancelled, it took place. The meaning of the second sentence with the gerund: without looking at me, he left the room.

We have found out the main difficulties that a preposition can cause.

Union

A particle as a auxiliary part of speech is capable, for example, of changing the morphological characteristics of words (for example, creating a conditional or for a verb. Such a privilege did not go to the conjunction. The task of this auxiliary part of speech is only to connect homogeneous members and simple sentences within a complex one.

Types of unions

In structure, conjunctions are simple and compound, and in meaning - coordinating and subordinating.

Coordinating sentences exist to connect homogeneous members and simple equal sentences within a complex sentence. They, in turn, are divided into three types.

• Connectors: Brother And sisters looked alike. We installed the antenna Also coordinates have been clarified. Bread Yes porridge is our food.
• Opponents: He came out But didn't close the door. I am reading, A she is listening. And Vaska is listening Yes eating. We haven't seen Chaliapin, but heard his voice.
• Dividers: Not that evening, not that morning in the yard. Get to work or leave. I want to know this secret or I can't sleep at night.

They have a more intricate role - they connect simple ones within a complex sentence, one of which is subordinate to the other. Therefore, this category of conjunctions has several meanings.

• Causal: Got an A, because knew the lesson well. Due to the fact that the air temperature exceeds the permissible norm, school classes are cancelled.
• Target: Arseny has arrived, to see Katya. In order to Raising chickens requires skill and care.
• Temporary: Bye The fire of the furnace does not go out, we will not die of hunger and cold. Barely The fog cleared, Gavrila saw the shore. Since you left, we didn’t look into this room.
• Conditional: I will do it If you will help. I'll come in if You'll be home.
• Comparative: He saw all the shortcomings, as if through a magnifying glass. I have as if the scales fell from my eyes.
• Explanatory: Our ancestors thought What the earth rests on three pillars.
• Concessive: He was agile, though and small
• Consequences: You made a choice So do not be angry.

Features of spelling conjunctions

The spelling of conjunctions (prepositions, particles) follows a general rule - they should not be confused with constructions that combine nominal parts of speech with prepositions or particles.

• Unions also, also, so that,but we write together: “I hurried to Nina, she Same I was looking forward to meeting you." "He jumped away from the fire, to Don't get burned." “It’s more difficult to create yourself, but more honorable."
• We write pronouns with particles separately: “It was the same dress in which she played Chopin.” “My dear, what would we do without you!” “Only take on something you understand.”

Particle

This function part of speech has two tasks. Firstly, it introduces new shades of meaning into the meaning of a word, and secondly, it forms new forms of words. Therefore, particles are divided into two categories.

Formative particles enable the verb to be used in the imperative and conditional moods. These are the words come on, let, would, etc. Examples: “ Let the music will start!” "I wanted would I want to see this city."

They give different lexical connotations to words and sentences. They come in several types.

• Negative: He was a hero Not my novel. I didn't mean to offend you at all.
• Interrogative: True whether, did you know Napoleon? Really further - a cliff?
• Exclamation marks: What the voice! How good!
• Demonstratives: This The plant has not been watered for a long time. Vaughn our teacher is coming.
• Clarifying: This is exactly your words. This girl - exactly the same our Arishka.
• Amplification: Pavel thought about her, he after all loved her for a long time. Even in the days of greatest despair, sparks of hope glimmered within us.
• With the meaning of doubt: Maestro hardly will play today.
• Restrictive-excretive: And in the estate - That you will have fun! It was quiet everywhere only the leaves rustled tenderly in the grove.

It is important not to confuse the semantic particle -to with the postfix -to, which forms Compare: you and I know who was on the ship (particle). You have to start sometime (postfix).

Let's clarify the details

Let's focus on whether the particle exists and how it differs How, preposition How, union How. Pretext How in Russian there is no, but a particle and a conjunction How have different functions and meanings, since in each case they are different auxiliary parts of speech. Examples:

• How beautiful, how fresh the roses were! (a particle with an exclamatory connotation).
• I learned how bitter slave labor is (explanatory union).
• The kitten was black as blackening (comparative union).

Let's not confuse them

We found out the role and features of the spelling of function words. What they have in common is that their use is meaningless without the participation of nominal parts of speech, so there is no need to mix together conjunctions, pronouns, particles, prepositions, adverbs and other speech components.

All words in any language can be divided into categories in which these words will be combined according to similar characteristics - for example, by their internal structure (morphology) and role in a sentence (syntactic role). One can argue for a long time about what is considered a separate part of speech and what is not, but it is always possible to distinguish three categories among the entire mass of words. We are talking about the independence of words in language and in sentences.

In contact with

Classmates

According to this criterion, all words in the language can be divided into three groups.

The first includes independent parts of speech. This is a noun, adjective, verb (with all its forms), pronoun, numeral, adverb. The specificity of this category is such that the words that belong to it have an independent lexical meaning, answer a specific question and play an independent role in the sentence, being its full members. To be more precise, they form a sentence.

The second group is the auxiliary parts of speech. These include prepositions, conjunctions and particles. The words assigned to them do not carry a specific lexical meaning and cannot form sentences, but they perform an important grammatical function: they link the sentence together. Hence their name - service.

The third group includes interjections and onomatopoeia, which add emotional coloring to speech. Their peculiarity is that they combine the characteristics of both the first and second categories of parts of speech. These words also do not have a clear lexical meaning, they do not answer any question and are not members of a sentence, but they can form a sentence, and the latter will have a complete thought.

Representatives of the navy were previously considered recognized champions in the use of interjections: in their speech, interjection sentences, often with obscene language, could take up more than half of its total volume, but they expressed emotions and did not need translation.

Let's look at the service parts of speech in Russian, namely, prepositions, conjunctions and particles.

Pretext

A preposition is a part of speech that expresses a syntactic relationship between words.

And along the road the dead stand with scythes("Elusive Avengers").

They're standing(where?) along roads.

Dead(with what?) with braids.

As we see, along And With- prepositions that provide a connection between the dependent noun in the case and the control element (in this case, with the verb and with another noun).

Prepositions can be classified in different ways. Here are examples of some classifications.

Origin

Prepositions can be primary and derivative. The primary ones include those that we inherited from the times of the Proto-Indo-European language. These are prepositions in, on, with, at, through, for, from, about, to, from, to, with, for, over, under, without, from, about, before. Derivative prepositions are those that were formed in historical time from other parts of speech, for example, about, after, around, thanks etc. It is very important to distinguish them from independent parts of speech; their spelling often depends on this.

Instead of resting, I went to the dacha. I'm going to my vacation spot by train.

Structure

Prepositions can be simple (one word), complex (written with a hyphen - for example, from under) and compounds, which consist of two or more words ( during, in contrast to).

Valence

It depends on how many cases the preposition can be used with. Some prepositions combine with only one case, for example, without, at, for are used only with the genitive case, at- with a prepositional, and To- with dative. Others - with two (in, on, between, for, etc.) Still others - with three.

Relationships between words

Having no meaning of their own, prepositions give it to the words with which they are associated. From this position, prepositions can be divided into the category of attitude. Relationships are distinguished:

This classification is not clear, because prepositions are a replenished category of words. I will say more - over time, prepositions take over case functions and become the main regulator of the relationships between words in a phrase as the language is analyzed.

Another interesting property of prepositions is their role in word formation. Prepositions have a long-standing “habit” of becoming prefixes, and thus new words are obtained:

passenger without a ticket - free rider

Sometimes difficulties arise with this, especially if the pretext is relatively new. A preposition, as you know, is written separately from the word, and sometimes it can be written behind the word (postposition - for example, For And for the sake of). To check what is in front of you, try putting another word between the word and something dubious. If the meaning is not lost, then you have an excuse. You can also inflect the word.

Spelling

Prepositions in the Russian language have different ages, and therefore it is difficult to come up with some kind of spelling rule. It's easier to remember that:

1. They write together: after, instead of, as a result of, about, like, like, in view of, along, inside, towards.
2. Written separately: in continuation, in conclusion, after, in contrast to, by virtue of, in the form of, despite, due to, during, for the purposes of, despite and etc.

Unions

A conjunction is an auxiliary part of speech that regulates the relationship between parts of a sentence, for example, between parts of a complex compound or between homogeneous members.

The classification of conjunctions is similar to that of prepositions - they are also primary and derivative, simple and complex. Can be used in pairs:

• neither this nor that;
• as much as needed - as much as it will be.

But their most interesting classification is based on the type of regulation of the relationships between parts of a sentence. For illustration, here is the following table:

Category	Subcategory	Union	Usage example
Essays	Compound	and, yes, also, also, neither... nor, how... so, not only... but also, how much... so much and	This knight was And with fear, And reproachfully(A Goncharov)
	Separation	or, either, then... that, neither that... nor that, and so on.	Who am I, king? or child?(A. Pushkin)
	Opposition	a, but, yes, but, nevertheless, however	The frost is small A doesn't tell me to stand(proverb)
	Gradation	not only... but also, not that... but (but), not so much... as	Everything that used to make his head spin Not really faded But just ceased to exist...(N. Gogol)
	Accession	too, also, moreover, and, yes and, but, and	The children noisily sculpted a woman from melted snow, And the woman turned out good.(S. Sergeev-Tsensky)
	Explanation	namely, that is, even	Well, this evening you will go to our people, to the Shcherbatskys, that is,? (L. Tolstoy)
Subordinates	Explanation	so that, how, what	It seemed to the prince too What Evgeny Pavlovich is dissatisfied and annoyed... (F. Dostoevsky)
	Time	when, barely, only	When there is no agreement among the comrades, things will not go well for them.(I. Krylov)
	place	from where, where, where	Village, Where I missed you Evgeny, it was a lovely corner... (A. Pushkin)
	Measure of action	so much, to such an extent, to the extent that, so, to that	Like a young rake waiting for a date with some crafty libertine or fool who has been deceived by him, so I waited for a minute all day...(A. Pushkin)
	Comparison	as, as if, as if, exactly, as if	How ram at the new gate(phraseologism)
	Cause	since, because	Pyotr Evseevich daily monitored the growth of the buildings, because in the warmth of their shelter thousands of working families would take refuge and the world after their settlement would become more honest and happier(A. Platonov)
	Condition	if, if, if, if... then	If If you have already decided to go, then I will at least follow you on foot... (A. Pushkin)
	Concession	although, let it be	...and although here the uncles clicked theirs first on the forehead, then on the back of the head, the children were indifferent to this...(M. Gorky)
	Target	in order to	Of course you wanted, old man, so that In the monastery I have become unaccustomed to these sweet names...(M. Lermontov)
	Consequence	So	So let's put aside the serious conversation(Strugatsky)

Spelling

Despite the fact that spelling conjunctions usually does not cause difficulties, there are pitfalls, since conjunctions can also be derivative and are sometimes difficult to distinguish from other parts of speech. The most common mistakes made when writing conjunctions Also And Same. In the first case, you can try to replace it with words also And in the same way. In the first case we will have a union Also with continuous writing, and in the second - separate writing Also with a particle same. In the case of a union Same can be replaced That on This or remove same and see if the meaning of what was said has changed.

Also you need to work harder. - He studied the same way as me.

He also went to the cinema. — We ate the same as before.

Particles

A particle is a part of speech that gives a word a shade of meaning or forms another grammatical form. The latter particles are called shape-forming particles.

Particles include common words such as whether, really, -then, how, even, nor, after all, you see, I suppose, it would be, let, really, just, really, after all, let him, after all and etc..

By origin, all particles are remnants of other words. A word enters the category of particles when it ceases to play the role of its member in a sentence and loses its independent lexical meaning: this process began a long time ago and has not ended. A number of difficulties are associated with this, namely, to which class to classify this or that word. The particle can be confused with an adverb, a verb, a conjunction, a preposition and a pronoun.

And if in some cases this does not pose a problem (for example, the particles whether, -ka, would, not, nor, really, do not have word-forming connections in the modern literary language), then in others it is relevant. For example, the words only, really, rather, directly, everything, nothing, too, and many others can be different parts of speech. Let's give examples.

It was rainy at night. — It used to rain at night.(verb - particle).

This is true. - Yes, indeed, it is so.(adverb - particle)

He went to to myself home. - He went to myself home.(pronoun - particle)

She lived in this house and exactly- on the third floor. — Exactly I saw her. (conjunction - particle)

You will go to school even if the weather is bad. — Even you will go to school. (conjunction - particle)

As we see, the particle, unlike prepositions and conjunctions, does not carry the function of connecting between words in a phrase or between parts of a sentence, and does not answer any question, which is why it differs from independent categories of words.

Shaping particles

Some particles have grammatical meaning because they participate in the formation of verb forms.

1. Particle would forms the subjunctive mood.
2. Particles let And Let's form variants of the imperative mood.

Ate would, nothing.

Let They say!

Let's Let's smoke, comrade.

An exception

In some northeastern regions of the country, in the speech of local residents you can find phrases like:

• Did you congratulate your wife on March 8th?

Where the particle agrees with the noun in gender and case and means this specific person or thing. In this case That (that, from, those) is not a particle, but a definite article. The presence of an article is not a literary norm, but since it exists, it should be mentioned.

Functional parts of speech, which are not members of the proposal. Their function– ensuring syntactic coherence (conjunctions) and expression of certain auxiliary, non-lexical meanings: grammatical meanings (prepositions, analytical indicators), discursive meanings (particles), modal and pragmatic evaluation (introductory words). Prepositions that have their own control model, similar to predicates, have special semantics. From a morphological point of view, auxiliary parts of speech do not change and do not add grammatical indicators, although they themselves can be such indicators in languages ​​with analytical grammar. In the Russian language, such analytical service indicators are, for example, modal particles - the indicator of the subjunctive mood would and indicators of the imperative let, let, yes. From a quantitative point of view, they represent a limited and closed class (of the order of 100–200 units). Synchronously and diachronically, the frequency of auxiliary parts of speech (at least prepositions and conjunctions; particles are more typical for artistic and oral genres of speech) is very stable and does not depend on the genre and type of text, bringing these indicators closer to the frequency of grammatical morphemes. The official ones include:

prepositions; unions; particles.

Pretext– an auxiliary part of speech that expresses the dependence of nouns, numerals and pronouns on other words in a phrase and sentence.

The general grammatical meaning of prepositions is to designate a subordinating relationship between significant words: running out of the barn, entering the garden, thoughts about the past.

Classes of prepositions by meaning

Together with the case endings of nouns, prepositions express different semantic meanings. According to their meaning, prepositions are divided into categories:

Spatial(place): in, on, because of, under, around, around, at, above: relax on the sea, work in the field, sit under an umbrella. Temporary(time): through, to, before, from, before, during: vacation in November, write in an hour, arrive the other day. Causal(reason): from, as a result of, because of, in view of: to blush from embarrassment, to mean. Target(goal): for, for the sake of: reading for children, working for profit. Mode of action(indicate the mode of action): with, without, in, from: play with enthusiasm, laugh heartily. Object(object to which the action is directed): about, about, about, by, with: talking about a book, quarreling with a friend.

Based on their origin, prepositions are divided into derivatives and non-derivatives.

Non-derivative prepositions consist of one sound, one syllable, two syllables: without, under, for, before, with, about, by, from, about, for.

Derivative prepositions can be formed from:

Adverb: near, nearby, around, in spite of: look around you, go towards each other;

Nouns: during, in connection with, as a result of, in case of: during the week, due to frost;

gerunds: thanks to, despite, despite: let's go regardless of the weather.

Union– an auxiliary part of speech that connects the members of a sentence as part of a complex sentence:

In my soul, like in the ocean,

The hope of the broken cargo lies.

(M. Lermontov.)

General grammatical meaning of conjunctions– designation of coordinating and subordinating connections between words and sentences. Syntactic functions: conjunctions are not part of the sentences. By structure, unions can be simple or compound.

Simple consist of one word: and, a, but, yes, what, if, when.

Composite consist of two or more words: but and, due to the fact that, since, until.

According to their meaning, conjunctions are divided into coordinating and subordinating. Coordinating Conjunctions (and, a, but, yes, or, neither – that, that – that) connect homogeneous members of a sentence, simple sentences as part of a complex one. According to their meaning, they are divided into : connecting(yes, neither - nor, and - not only, but also, also, also): Savelyev lost and also fell to his knees; adversative(ah, but, yes): The country is huge, but the roads are not so frequent. (E. Permyak.); dividing(or, either, then - that, not that - not that): Now it seemed like fog was falling, then suddenly a slanting heavy rain began to fall. (L. Tolstoy.)

Subordinating conjunctions (when, then, so that, so that, because, as, as if) connect simple sentences into complex sentences. By meaning they are divided into categories: Temporary(when, while, barely, only, just): When the tea was brought, I was already asleep. Causal(because, since, because, for): Never give up on small things in your work, for from small things great things are built. (I. Pavlov.) Target(in order to, in order to, in order to): In order to learn to tell the truth to people, you need to learn to tell it to yourself. (L. Tolstoy.) Conditional(if, if - then, if): If love disappears, then there is no need to live. Concessive(although, despite the fact that, let it be): I was no longer scared at all, although the thunderstorm continued. Comparative(as if, as if, exactly): But she herself is majestic, stands out like a peahen. (A. Pushkin.) Investigative(what, to): It’s so freezing outside that you can’t even go out. Explanatory(what, to, as if): And it seemed to me as if the snow was crunching. (M. Lermontov.)

Particles- these are auxiliary parts of speech that give various additional shades to words and sentences or serve to form the forms of words: The birds did not sing, even the nightingales were silent.

General grammatical meaning of particles– expression of additional shades of meaning, it is distinguished by great diversity.

Formative and word-forming particles are distinguished.

Form the mood of the verb: Let him come in. If i knew?

They form forms of degrees of comparison: The most beautiful, no less intelligent.

Particle discharges by value:Interrogative: really, whether; Exclamation marks: what for, how; Index fingers: here, there, this; Amplifiers: even, after all; Negative: not, neither; Clarification: just, exactly; Restrictive: just.

28.Complex sentence. Typology of complex sentences in Russian syntax. Complex sentence.

Difficult sentence- this is a sentence that contains at least two grammatical bases (at least two simple sentences) and represents a semantic and grammatical unity, formalized intonationally. For example: Ahead of us a brown, clayey bank descended steeply, and behind us a wide grove darkened.

Difficult sentence- this is an integral syntactic unit, which is a grammatically formalized combination of sentences and functions as a message about two or more situations and the relationships between them. What distinguishes a complex sentence from a simple sentence is that a simple sentence has one grammatical basis, while a complex sentence has more than one. A complex sentence thus consists of parts, each of which is framed as a simple sentence. Complex sentences, like simple ones, are characterized by the purpose of the statement. They can be non-exclamatory and exclamatory.

Unlike a simple sentence, a complex sentence requires determining how many parts it consists of and by what connection its parts are connected.

The syntactic connection between parts of a complex sentence can be: conjunction and non-conjunction

Allied communication- This is a type of syntactic connection expressed using conjunctions. A conjunction can be: coordinating and subordinating

Coordinating syntactic connection- this is a type of syntactic connection with an equal relationship of parts. Coordinating syntactic connection is expressed using special means: coordinating conjunctions. For example, the thunderstorm passed and the sun came out.

Subordinating syntactic connection- this is a type of syntactic connection with an unequal relationship of parts. The parts of a complex sentence with a subordinating relationship are different: one is the main clause, the other is the subordinate clause. Subordinating syntactic connections are expressed using special means: subordinating conjunctions and allied words. For example, We didn’t go for a walk because a thunderstorm started. (We didn’t go for a walk - the main sentence, but because the thunderstorm started - the subordinate clause.)

Unionless syntactic connection– this is a connection in meaning. Parts of a complex sentence are connected only by punctuation. Neither conjunctions nor allied words are used to express non-union syntactic connections. Example: The coach is sick, the lesson is postponed to next week.

The nature of the syntactic connection between parts of a complex sentence- This is the most important classification feature of complex sentences.

Classification of complex sentences is a classification based on the syntactic connection between its parts. Complex sentences are divided into 1) allied and 2) non-union, and allied, in turn, into 1) compound and 2) complex.

Consequently, there are three types of complex sentences: complex, complex, non-union.

Compound sentences are those whose parts are independent, equal and connected by a coordinating syntactic connection expressed by coordinating conjunctions.

Example: You like to show off your advantages, but people don't like it.

Coordination is expressed by coordinating conjunctions. They determine the nature of semantic relations in the BSC. For example, the Coach got sick and the classes were postponed. (connective conjunction and, the sentence expresses a sequence of actions determined as cause and effect). Separation from loved ones is difficult, but it is easier than living with those you don’t love. (adversive conjunction but, the sentence expresses opposition). Either he got sick, or his mother left him at home to help with the housework. (a disjunctive conjunction is not that... not that, the sentence expresses mutual exclusion)

The classification of BSCs is based on the use of conjunctions in them and their meaning.

BSC are divided into the following types:

BSC with connecting unions and, yes (in the meaning of and), neither... nor, as, and express either the simultaneity of events referred to in parts of the BSC, or the relationship of cause or effect. For example, Anna did not answer, and the pause dragged on. (simultaneity of actions)

SSP with adversarial alliances a, but, yes (in the meaning but), however, on the other hand, while, meanwhile, while, while express comparison or opposition. For example, Marina did not answer, but I did not rush her. (matching)

SSP with dividing unions or (or), either, then... then, either... or, not that... not that express alternation or mutual exclusion. For example, Perhaps we will come to your place, or it’s better if you come to our dacha. (mutually exclusive)

BSC with connecting unions and, moreover, they also indicate additional information. For example: She expressed her feelings directly, I was also simple and direct in my communication.

BSC with explanatory conjunctions that is, they contain an explanation. For example: Your article did not interest us, that is, we will not publish it.

BSC with gradational unions not only... but also, not really... but also express a relationship in importance. For example: It wasn’t that I was tired of everything, but I wasn’t going to put up with what was happening anymore.

Terms compound sentences open And compound sentences with a closed structure have common and minor distinctive features. Thus, N.S. Valgina notes that “parts of a complex sentence of an open structure represent an open series, they are constructed in the same way, they have the meaning of simultaneity, which is expressed by the correspondence of aspectual forms of predicate verbs.” Sentences of an open structure can have an unlimited number of predicative parts (only lexical restrictions arise). "In sentences of a closed structure, the parts are a closed series; these are always two parts, structurally and semantically interdependent, connected. N. S. Valgina also points out that with autosemantics, the parts of a complex sentence are relatively independent. With synsemantics, the semantic independence of the predicative parts in a complex sentence is violated and the entire complex sentence is characterized by semantic-syntactic integrity.

Elements of dependence appear between the parts: anaphoric pronouns, common secondary members of the sentence, etc. V.V. Babaytseva distinguishes complex sentences of homogeneous and heterogeneous composition according to their structural features and grammatical meaning.

Polynomial complex sentence (complex sentence of a complex type) is a sentence that consists of more than two IFs (3-4 or more IFs). Compound, complex, non-union sentences and sentences with heterogeneous connections - complex syntactic constructions - can be polynomial.

Polynomial compound sentences can be:

- with the same coordinating conjunctions between PCs: The heavy castles fell, and the plank gates opened, and she found herself in a green meadow in front of a steep mountain...

- with various coordinating conjunctions between PCs: This piercing scream then reached the village, and Mitrash heard it and responded, but a gust of wind then carried the scream in the other direction.