Yulia Gennadievna Tyugasheva
Methodological development "Principles of working on polyphonic works in the piano class of the Children's Art School"

1. Introduction.

For general musical education, children's students music school, extremely great value has development polyphonic hearing. Without the ability to hear the entire musical fabric works, to follow during the game all the lines of musical presentation, their coordination, subordination to each other, the performer cannot create an artistically complete image. Does the student play a homophonic-harmonic or polyphonic piece, he always needs to understand the logic of the movement of texture elements, find its main and secondary lines, and build a musical perspective of different sound planes.

2. Types polyphony.

With elements polyphony students encounter problems already in the initial period of training. You need to know what types there are polyphonies and what is their essence. « Polyphony» - Greek word. Translated into Russian it means "polyphony". Every voice in polyphonic music is melodically independent, so all voices are expressive and melodious.

Subglottic appearance (polyphonic Russian songs) based on the development of the main voice (in the song - lead). The remaining voices of its branch are more or less independent. They contribute to an increase in the overall chanting of melodic development (note example of a Russian folk song "And I'm in the meadow").

Contrasting polyphony based on the development of independent lines, which are not characterized by commonality origin from one melodic source (Bach's works). First one and then another voice comes to the fore (music example by J. Bach "Minuet")

Imitation polyphony is based on the sequential implementation in different voices, or the same melodic line (canon, or one melodic passage - theme (fugue). All voices are generally equivalent, but in the fugue (variety of fuguetta, invention)- the leading role of the voice with the theme, in the canon of the voice containing the most individualized part of the melody (note example by I. Bach "Two-Voice Invention" in D minor).

3. Operating principles over different views polyphony in junior classes of children's art school.

For beginners, the most intelligible educational material in terms of content is the melodies of children's and folk songs in single-voice arrangements. Songs must be chosen simple, but meaningful, with bright intonation expressiveness, and a clear climax. Further, purely instrumental melodies are used. Thus, the student’s focus is on the melody, which must first be sung expressively, then played expressively on the piano. At first work is underway on polyphonic processing folk songs of subvocal type. Tell: the singer started the song, then the choir picked up ( "echo voices", varying the same melody. We need to separate the roles. The student sings and plays the lead singer, the teacher plays the choral part on piano. Then switch roles, having first learned all the voices by heart. The student feels the independent life of each part and hears the entire piece in its entirety, in a combination of both voices. Next, the student plays both parts, this creates a figurative perception of the voices. A number of other subvocal plays are also learned polyphony. The concept of imitation needs to be explained using examples available to the student. "On a green meadow..." the chant is repeated an octave higher - like "echo", the melody is played by the student, the echo teacher, then vice versa. This is especially useful when the imitation is accompanied by a melody in a different voice. Immediately accustom the student to clarity in the alternate entry of voices and to the clarity of their conduct and ending. The upper voice is f, the echo is p, i.e. a contrasting dynamic embodiment of each voice is necessary. So that the student hears not only the combination of two voices, but also their different colors. After mastering a simple imitation (repeating the motive in a different voice) begins Job over plays of a canonical type, built on strett imitation, which enters before the end of the imitated melody. Here, not just one phrase or motive is imitated, but all phrases to the end works. Overcoming this new polyphonic difficulty - work in stages:

First, rewrite the play in simple imitation, putting pauses in accordance with the corresponding voices;

Next, the entire text is played in the ensemble, but in the author’s version, then the student himself plays everything. This exercise can then be played by ear from different notes. What does the student take away for himself? He gets used to it faster polyphonic texture, clearly understands the melody of each voice, their vertical relationship. He sees and grasps with his inner ear the discrepancy in time between identical motives. Hears the beginning of the imitation, its combination with the same phrase that is being imitated, and the connection of the end of the imitation with a new phrase. This work is very important, since strett imitation in polyphony Bach occupies a large place. Lungs polyphonic pieces I. Bach from "Music notebook of A. M. Bach"- the most valuable material, it actively develops polyphonic thinking of the student, fosters a sense of style and form. IN working on polyphony basic principles of working on a work. Characteristic feature polyphony– the presence of several simultaneously sounding and developing melodic lines, hence the main task is the ability to hear and lead each voice polyphonic development separately and the entire set of voices in their interrelation. In a two-part composition it is necessary work over each voice - to be able to lead it, feel the direction of development, and intonate well. When studying polyphonic pieces main job is conducted on melodiousness, intonation expressiveness and independence of each voice separately. Independence of voices is an indispensable feature of any polyphonic work, and it manifests itself in next:

2. different, almost nowhere matching phrasing;

3. mismatch of strokes;

4. mismatch of climaxes;

6. discrepancy in dynamic development.

The dynamics in Bach's plays are aimed at revealing the independence of the voice. His polyphony is characterized by polydynamics and above all, dynamic exaggerations must be avoided. A sense of proportion in dynamic changes is necessary for a convincing and stylish performance of Bach's music. The peculiarity is that Bach’s works do not tolerate nuanced diversity. Long build-ups, significant climaxes, large constructions performed in one sound plane or juxtaposition of contrasting sections are possible, but not a constant change of colors. Often dynamic growth in the topic is based on like steps. Be sure to pay attention to the special structures of Bach's motifs. They begin on the weak beat of the bar and end on the strong beat. As if they are off-beat in nature, the boundaries of the motive do not coincide with the boundaries of the beat. Dynamic pathos and significance are characteristic of Bach’s cadences, especially if the melody develops in the sound f, this also applies to the cadences in the middle works. Braudo revealed distinctive feature Bach's style is a contrast in the articulation of adjacent durations, that is, small durations are played legato, and larger durations are played non legato and staccato, depending on the nature of the piece (there are exceptions minuet in d minor, all legato is the nature of the song structure, Braudo called it "reception of eight".

4. Common disadvantages when playing polyphonic pieces.

Common disadvantages when playing polyphonic pieces including that the student throws out the sound of a given voice, does not hear its connection with the entire melodic line, and does not translate it into the next meaningful melodic passage, voice. Sometimes, one withstands a sound and does not balance its fading sound with the strength of the next one, as a result the sound line is broken and the expressive meaning is lost. In a two-part composition one must take it seriously work on every voice, be able to lead it, sensing the direction of development, intonate well and, of course, apply the necessary strokes. It is necessary to feel and understand the expressiveness of each voice and when they sound together. The student should know that in different voices, in accordance with their expressive meaning and melodic pattern, phrasing, sound character, strokes can be (and often happen) completely different. This requires not only careful listening, but also special work. You must be able to play each voice from memory, which will help its correct auditory perception and performance. The overall sound will challenge the student to identify the timbre of the sound line.

5. Features work on polyphony in the senior classes of the Children's Art School(polyphony).

In polyphony work The difficulty increases because there are not two, but more voices. Concern for the accuracy of voice guidance makes you pay special attention to fingering. The most difficult formations are those that require good legato. It is necessary to use complex fingering techniques - silent substitution to maintain voices, "shifting", "slip". A new difficulty also appears: the distribution of the average voice between the parts of the right and left hands. The accuracy and smoothness of voice guidance here will largely depend on the fingering.

In polyphonic works knowing each voice from memory from beginning to end is not at all necessary, although it is advisable in some cases. We accept this path work: having familiarized yourself with the essay, carefully analyze each part of it, isolating complex constructions and analyzing their structure. Disassemble each such structure by voice, play separately with the proper fingering, correct phrasing and precise strokes. Next, move on to a combination of different voices and then to full polyphony. The same work hold over the next section, and so sort everything out work. And then return to what seems most difficult. It is useful to train one to listen to the conversation of voices in order to catch vocal and speech intonations; Pay attention to the melodious sound of each voice - this is one of the requirements when performing polyphony.

In the future, always return to the most difficult places and play voices separately, especially where there are two or three voices in one part, in order to maintain accuracy in voicing.

For understanding polyphonic work you need to imagine its form, theme and its character, hear all its implementation. Larger required Job over the first presentation of the theme - the main artistic image of the essay. You need to know whether stretted themes are available in increase and in circulation. Represent the melodic pattern and the nature of the counterposition, know whether it is retained or not. Teach them first separately, then in combination with the topic. Also applies to interludes, know what melodic material they are based on. Identify cadences and their role. Be able to hear not only the horizontal, but also the vertical, that is, the harmonic basis that arises from the combination of melodic voices. When learning to first play with a rich sound, the entire musical fabric should sound well and clearly.

6. Conclusion.

A teacher working with students of any level of preparedness always faces a serious task: teach to love polyphonic music, understand it, with pleasure work on a polyphonic piece. Polyphonic way of presentation, artistic images polyphonic works, their musical language should become familiar and understandable to students.

Mastery polyphony gives a lot students: develops hearing, timbre variety of sound, the ability to lead a melodic melodic line, develops the skill of legato performance, develops accuracy, preciseness of sound, develops special obedience, flexibility of the hand and fingers combined with sound definition.

Development of full perception polyphony unthinkable without Bach's music, which combines features like polyphonic, and homophonic-harmonic thinking. Bach's most striking thematic and clear logic will serve as a starting point for children to become acquainted with polyphony.

I believe that polyphonic music is accessible and interesting for young musicians, and it should be mastered from the initial stage of learning to play an instrument.

7. Music examples.

8. Literature.

1. A. Alekseev « Methods of learning to play the piano»

Moscow. "Music".1971

2. N. Kalinina "Bach's keyboard music" piano class»

Leningrad. "Music". 1988

3. I. Braudo “On the study of Bach’s keyboard works in music school”

Moscow. « Classic XXI» . 2001

from Greek poly - many, many and phone - sound, voice) - a type of musical polyphony based on the simultaneous combination of independent melodic lines (voices). P. is logically opposed to homophony (from the Greek homos - equal, common, melody with accompaniment) and heterophony (from the Greek heteros - other), characteristic of folk music and resulting from the simultaneous sounding of variants of one tune. In the music of recent centuries, these types of polyphony often merge, forming a mixed mode. In contrast to homophony, which flourished in modern times, the presupposition of the equal value of voices dominated in the music of the Middle Ages (from the 9th century) and the Renaissance (choral music of the strict style), reached its peak in the work of J. S. Bach and retains its significance in our day. time. Perceiving polyphonic music, the listener seems to be immersed in the contemplation of the entire musical fabric. In the interweaving of many voices, he discovers the beauty of the universe, unity in diversity, the contradictory fullness of the essential forces of man, the harmony of the improvisational free structure of lines and the thoughtful orderliness of the whole. P.'s correspondence to the deepest properties of human thinking and worldview determined the use of this concept in a broad metaphorical and aesthetic sense (for example, Bakhtin's idea of ​​​​the polyphonic structure of the novel).

Excellent definition

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POLYPHONY

from Greek polys - numerous, phone - sound, voice) is a concept in musicology, meaning a type of polyphony in music, based on the harmonic equality of voices. Rethought by M. M. Bakhtin ("Problems of Dostoevsky's Creativity", 1929), who gave it a broader philosophical and aesthetic meaning, characterizing not only the style of the literary novel, but also the method of cognition, the concept of the world and man, the way of relations between people, worldviews and cultures . P. is taken in close unity with other related concepts - “dialogue”, “counterpoint”, “polemic”, “discussion”, “argument”, etc. Bakhtin’s concept of polyphonic dialogism rests, first of all, on his philosophy of man, According to the cut, a person’s life itself, his consciousness and relationships with others have a dialogical nature. The basis of the human, according to Bakhtin, is the interhuman, intersubjective and interindividual. Two human beings constitute the minimum of life and existence. Bakhtin considers a person as a unique individuality and personality, the true life of which is accessible only to dialogical penetration into it. As for the polyphonic novel, its main feature is “the multiplicity of independent and unmerged voices and consciousnesses, the true polyphony of full-fledged voices,” which is what makes it fundamentally different from the traditional, monologue novel, in which the one world author's consciousness. In a polyphonic novel, a completely new relationship is established between the author and the characters he created: what the author did before, the hero now does, illuminating himself from all possible sides. Here the author speaks not about the hero, but with the hero, giving him the opportunity to respond and object, renouncing his monopoly on final comprehension and completion. The author’s consciousness is active, but this activity is aimed at deepening someone else’s thought, at revealing all the meaning contained in it. Bakhtin remains faithful to the dialogical approach when considering style, truth, and other problems. He is not satisfied with the well-known definition of style, according to which style is a person. According to the concept of dialogism, at least two people are needed to understand a style. Since the world of a polyphonic novel is not single, but represents many worlds of equal consciousnesses, this novel is multi-styled or even styleless, because in it a folk ditty can be combined with a Schiller dithyramb. Following Dostoevsky, Bakhtin opposes truth in the theoretical sense, truth-formula, truth-position, taken outside of living life. For him, truth is existential, it is endowed with a personal and individual dimension. He does not reject the concept of a single truth, but believes that the need for one and unified consciousness does not at all follow from it; it fully allows for a multiplicity of consciousnesses and points of view. At the same time, Bakhtin does not take the position of relativism, when everyone is his own judge and everyone is right, which is equivalent to the fact that no one is right. A single truth, or “truth in itself,” exists, it represents a horizon towards which the participants in the dialogue are moving, and none of them can lay claim to a complete, complete, and especially absolute truth. Dispute does not give birth, but brings us closer to a single truth. Even consent, Bakhtin notes, retains its dialogical character and never leads to the merging of voices and truths into a single impersonal truth. In its concept humanitarian knowledge in general, Bakhtin also proceeds from the P principle. He believes that the methods of cognition of the humanities are not so much analysis and explanation as interpretation and understanding, which take the form of a dialogue between individuals. When studying a text, a researcher or critic should always see its author, perceiving the latter as a subject and entering into a dialogical relationship with him. Bakhtin extends the principle of P. and dialogue to relations between cultures. Polemicizing with supporters of cultural relativism, who see cultural contacts as a threat to the preservation of their identity, he emphasizes that during a dialogical meeting of cultures, “they do not merge or mix, each retains its unity and open integrity, but they are mutually enriched.” P. Bakhtin's concept became a significant contribution to the development of modern technology. methodology of humanitarian knowledge, had a great influence on the development of the entire complex of humanities.

Polyphony

(from Greek polus - many and ponn - sound, voice; lit. - polyphony) - a type of polyphony based on simultaneous the sound of two or more melodic sounds. lines or melodic. votes. “Polyphony, in its highest sense,” pointed out A. N. Serov, “must be understood as the harmonic merging together of several independent melodies, going in several voices simultaneously, together. In rational speech it is unthinkable that, for example, several persons spoke together, each one’s own, and so that confusion and incomprehensible nonsense do not come out of this, but, on the contrary, an excellent overall impression is possible. In music, such a miracle is possible; it constitutes one of the aesthetic specialties of our art.” The concept of "P." coincides with the broad meaning of the term counterpoint. N. Ya. Myaskovsky attributed it to the field of contrapuntal. mastery of the combination of melodically independent voices and the combination of several at the same time. thematic elements.
P. is one of the most important means of music. compositions and arts. expressiveness. Numerous P.'s techniques serve to diversify the content of music. production, embodiment and development of art. images; by means of P. one can modify, compare and combine muses. topics. P. is based on the laws of melody, rhythm, mode, and harmony. The expressiveness of P.'s techniques is also influenced by instrumentation, dynamics, and other components of music. Depending on the definition music The context may change the arts. the meaning of certain polyphonic means. presentation. There are different music forms and genres used to create works. polyphonic warehouse: fugue, fuguetta, invention, canon, polyphonic variations, in the 14th-16th centuries. - motet, madrigal, etc. Polyphonic. episodes (for example, fugato) also occur within other forms.
Polyphonic (contrapuntal) warehouse of muses. prod. opposes homophonic-harmonic (see. Harmony , Homophony), where the voices form chords and ch. melodic line, most often in the upper voice. The fundamental feature of polyphony. texture, which distinguishes it from the homophonic-harmonic one, is fluidity, which is achieved by erasing caesuras that separate constructions, and the imperceptibility of transitions from one to another. Polyphonic voices formations rarely cadence simultaneously; usually their cadences do not coincide, which gives rise to a feeling of continuity of movement as a special expression. quality inherent in P. While some voices begin to present a new one or repeat (imitate) the previous melody (theme), others have not yet finished the previous one:

Palestrina. Richerkar in I tone.
At such moments, knots of complex structural plexuses are formed, combining at the same time different functions of the muses. forms. Following this comes the definition. relaxation of tension, movement is simplified up to the next node of complex plexuses, etc. In such dramaturgical conditions the development of polyphonic takes place. production, especially if they allow large works of art. tasks differ in depth of content.
The combination of voices vertically is regulated in P. by the laws of harmony inherent in the definition. era or style. “As a result, no counterpoint can exist without harmony, for any combination of simultaneous melodies at their individual points forms consonances or chords. In genesis, no harmony is possible without counterpoint, since the desire to connect several melodies at the same time precisely gave rise to the existence of harmony” (G . A. Laroche). In P. strict style 15-16 centuries. dissonances were located between consonances and required smooth movement, in P. free style 17-19 centuries dissonances were not connected by smoothness and could transform into one another, pushing the modal-melodic resolution to a later time. In modern music, with its “emancipation” of dissonance, dissonant combinations of polyphonic. votes are allowed at any length.
The types of music are varied and difficult to classify due to the great fluidity characteristic of this type of muses. lawsuit
In some people music In cultures, the subglottic type of P. is common, based on the ch. melodic voice, from which melodic sounds branch off. turns of other voices, echoes, varying and replenishing the main. chant, at times merging with it, in particular in cadences (see. Heterophony).
In prof. P.'s art has developed other melodic sounds. ratios that contribute to the expressiveness of voices and all polyphony. the whole. Here, the type of song depends on the horizontal components: when the melody (theme) is identical, imitatively performed in different voices, an imitation song is formed; when the combined melodies are different, a contrast song is formed. This distinction is conditional, because with imitation in circulation, increase, decrease, and even more so in the moving movement, the differences in melodies horizontally intensify and bring the song closer to contrasting:

J. S. Bach. Organ fugue in C major (BWV 547).
If the contrast is melodic. The voices are not very strong and they use kinships. turns, P. approaches imitative, as, for example, in the four-theme ricercar by G. Frescobaldi, where the themes are intonationally homogeneous:

In some cases, polyphonic. the combination, starting as an imitation, is defined. the moment turns into a contrasting one and vice versa - from a contrasting one a transition to an imitation one is possible. This reveals an inextricable connection between the two types of P.
In its pure form, imitation. P. is presented in a one-topic canon, for example. in the 27th variation from Bach's Goldberg Variations (BWV 988):

To avoid monotony in music. In the content of the canon, the proposta is constructed here in such a way that there is a systematic alternation of melodic and rhythmic. figures. When carrying out a risposta, they lag behind the figures of the proposta, and intonation appears vertically. contrast, although horizontally the melodies are the same.
Method of increasing and decreasing intonation. activity in the proposta of the canon, which ensures the intensity of the form as a whole, was known even in P. of the strict style, as evidenced, for example, by the three-goal. Canon "Benedictes" of the Mass "Ad fugam" of Palestrina:

Thus, imitation. P. in the form of a canon is by no means alien to contrast, but this contrast arises vertically, while horizontally its components are devoid of contrast due to the identity of the melodies in all voices. This is how it fundamentally differs from contrasting music, which unites horizontally unequal melodies. elements.
The final one-topic canon as a form of imitation. In the case of a free extension of his voices, P. becomes a contrasting P., which in turn can go into canon:

G. Dufay. Duo from the mass "Ave regina caelorum", Gloria.
The described form connects the types of P. in time, horizontally: one type is followed by another. However the music different eras and styles is also rich in their simultaneous vertical combinations: imitation is accompanied by contrast, and vice versa. Some voices unfold imitatively, others create a contrast to them or in free counterpoint;

The combination of proposta and risposta here recreates the form of an ancient organum), or in turn forms an imitation. construction.
In the latter case, a double (triple) imitation or canon is formed if the imitation extends for a long time. time.

D. D. Shostakovich. 5th Symphony, Part I.
The interrelation of imitation and contrast P. in double canons sometimes leads to the fact that their initial sections are perceived as one-theme-imitation, and only gradually the propostas begin to differ. This happens when the entire work is characterized by a common mood, and the difference between the two elements is not only not emphasized, but, on the contrary, is masked.
In Et resurrexit of Palestrina's canonical mass, the double (two-volume) canon is veiled by the similarity of the initial sections of the propostas, as a result of which at the first moment a simple (one-volume) four-voice canon is heard and only subsequently the difference in the propostas becomes noticeable and the form of the two-volume canon is realized:

As diverse as the concept and manifestation of contrast is in music, so is contrasting P. In the simplest cases of this type of P., the voices are quite equal, which especially applies to contrapuntal. fabrics in production strict style, where polyphony has not yet been developed. topic as a concentrated one-goal. basic expression thoughts, basic music content. With the formation of such a theme in the works of J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel and their major predecessors and followers, contrasting P. allows the primacy of the theme over the voices accompanying it - opposition (in a fugue), counterpoints. At the same time, in cantatas and productions. In other genres, Bach variously presents contrasting music of another kind, formed from the combination of a chorale melody with a polygonal melody. fabric of other voices. In such cases, the differentiation of the components of contrasting voices becomes even clearer, bringing them to the genre specificity of polyphonic voices. the whole. In instr. In the music of later times, the differentiation of the functions of voices leads to a special kind of “P. layers”, combining one-headed. melodies in octave doublings and, often, imitations with whole harmonics. complexes: upper layer - melodic. bearer of thematic, middle - harmonious. complex, lower - melodic moving bass. "P. plastov" is extremely effective in dramaturgy. relation and is not used in a single stream over a long period, but in a certain way. nodes of the production, in particular in the culminating sections, being the result of the build-up. These are the climaxes in the first movements of Beethoven's 9th Symphony and Tchaikovsky's 5th Symphony:

L. Beethoven. 9th Symphony, movement I.

P. I. Tchaikovsky. 5th Symphony, movement II.
The dramatically tense “P. Plastov” can be contrasted with the calmly epic. connection is self-contained. that which is exemplified by the reprise of the symphony. paintings by A.P. Borodin “In Central Asia”, combining two different themes - Russian and Eastern - and also being the pinnacle in the development of the work.
Opera music is very rich in manifestations of contrasting P., where various types of music are widely used. kind of combinations dep. voices and complexes that characterize the images of the heroes, their relationships, confrontation, conflicts and, in general, the entire situation of the action.
The variety of forms of contrasting pianoforte cannot serve as a basis for abandoning this generalizing concept, just as musicology does not abandon the term, for example, “sonata form,” although the interpretation and application of this form by I. Haydn and D. D. Shostakovich, L. Beethoven and P. Hindemith are very different.
In Europe P. music originated in the depths of early polyphony (organum, treble, motet, etc.), gradually taking shape in its own right. view. The earliest information that has reached us about everyday polyphony in Europe dates back to the British Isles. On the continent, polyphony developed not so much under the influence of English as due to internal influences. reasons. The first to emerge is, apparently, the primitive form of contrastive P., formed from counterpoint to a given choral or other genre of melody. The theorist John Cotton (late 11th - early 12th centuries), outlining the theory of polyphony (two-voices), wrote: “Diaphony is a coordinated divergence of voices performed by at least two singers so that one leads the main melody, and the other skillfully wanders through other sounds; both of them at certain moments converge in unison or octave. This method of singing is usually called organum, because the human voice, skillfully diverging (from the main one), sounds like an instrument called an organ. The word diaphony means a double voice or divergence of voices. ". The form of imitation is apparently of folk origin - “very early on the people were able to sing strictly canonically” (R.I. Gruber), which led to the formation of independent songs. prod. using imitation. This is the double hexagon. the endless “Summer Canon” (c. 1240), written by J. Fornset, a monk from Reading (England), testifying not so much to maturity as to the prevalence of imitative (in this case, canonical) technology already by the middle. 13th century Scheme of the "Summer Canon":

Etc.
The primitive form of contrastive polyphony (S.S. Skrebkov attributes it to the field of heterophony) is found in the early motet of the 13th-14th centuries, where polyphony was expressed in the combination of several. melodies (usually three) with different texts, sometimes in different languages. An example is the anonymous motet of the 13th century:

Motet "Mariac assumptio - Huius chori".
The lower voice contains the choral melody "Kyrie", in the middle and upper voice there are counterpoints to it with lyrics in Latin. and French languages, melodically close to chorale, but still possessing some independence. intonation-rhythm. drawing. The form of the whole - variations - is formed on the basis of the repetition of a chorale melody, acting as a cantus firmus with the upper voices melodically changing. In G. de Machaut's motet "Trop plus est bele - Biautе paree - Je ne suis mie" (c. 1350) each voice has its own melody from its own. text (all in French), and the lower one, with its more even movement, also represents a repeating cantus firmus, and as a result, a polyphonic form is also formed. variations. This is typical. examples of the early motet - a genre that undoubtedly played an important role on the path to the mature form of P. The generally accepted division of mature polyphonic. the claim for strict and free styles corresponds to both theoretical and historical. signs. Strict style painting is characteristic of the Dutch, Italian and other schools of the 15th and 16th centuries. It was replaced by free-style art, which continues to develop to this day. In the 17th century advanced along with other Germans. national school, which in the works of the greatest polyphonists Bach and Handel reached in the 1st half. 18th century polyphonic peaks lawsuit Both styles have been defined within their eras. evolution, closely connected with the general development of muses. art and its inherent laws of harmony, mode and other musical expressions. funds. The border between styles is the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, when, in connection with the birth of opera, the homophonic-harmonic style clearly took shape. warehouse and two modes were established - major and minor, on which the whole of Europe began to focus. music, incl. and polyphonic.
The works of the era of strict style “amaze with their sublimity of flight, stern grandeur, a kind of azure, serene purity and transparency” (Laroche). They used preim. wok genres and instruments were used to duplicate chanters. voices and extremely rarely - for independent people. execution. The ancient diatonic system prevailed. modes, in which the leading-tone intonations of the future major and minor gradually began to break through. The melody was smooth, the jumps were usually balanced by a subsequent move in the opposite direction, the rhythm was subject to the laws of mensural theory (see. Mensural notation), was calm and unhurried. In combinations of voices, consonances predominated; dissonance rarely appeared as an independent voice. consonance, usually formed by passing and auxiliary. sounds on the weak beats of the bar or a prepared delay on the strong beat. "...All parts in res facta (here is a written counterpoint, as opposed to an improvised one) - three, four or more - all depend on each other, i.e. the order and laws of consonance in any voice must be applied in relation to to all other voices,” wrote the theorist Johannes Tinctoris (1446-1511). Basic genres: chanson (song), motet, madrigal (small forms), mass, requiem (large forms). Thematic techniques development: repetition, most of all represented by string imitation and canon, counterpointing, incl. mobile counterpoint, contrast of choir compositions. votes. Distinguished by the unity of mood, polyphonic. prod. strict style were created by the method of variation, which allows: 1) variational identity, 2) variational germination, 3) variational renewal. In the first case, the identity of some polyphonic components was preserved. the whole while varying others; in the second - melodic. the identity with the previous construction remained only in the initial section, but the continuation was different; in the third, thematic updates took place. material while maintaining the general character of intonation. The method of variation extended to the horizontal and vertical, to small and large forms, and suggested the possibility of melodiousness. changes made with the help of circulation, rake movement and its circulation, as well as varying the meter rhythm - increasing, decreasing, skipping pauses, etc. Most simple shapes variational identity - transfer of ready-made contrapuntal. combinations to a different height (transposition) or the attribution of new voices to such a combination - see, for example, in “Missa prolationum” by J. de Ockeghem, where the melodic. the phrase to the words "Christe eleison" is sung first by alto and bass, and then repeated by soprano and tenor a second higher. In the same op. Sanctus consists of a repetition a sixth higher by the soprano and tenor parts of what was previously assigned to the alto and bass (A), which now counterpoint (B) to the imitating voices, changes in duration and melodicity. In the figure, the initial combination does not occur:

Variational renewal in a large form was achieved in those cases where the cantus firmus changed, but came from the same source as the first (see below about the “Fortuna desperata” masses, etc.).
The main representatives of the strict style of P. are G. Dufay, J. Okegem, J. Obrecht, Josquin Depres, O. Lasso, Palestrina. Remaining within the framework of this style, their production. demonstrate different attitude to the forms of musical-thematic. development, imitation, contrast, harmonious. fullness of sound, cantus firmus is used in different ways. Thus, one can see the evolution of imitation, the most important of polyphonics. means of music expressiveness. Initially, imitations in unison and octave were used, then other intervals began to be used, among which the fifth and fourth were especially important as they prepared a fugue presentation. Imitations developed thematically. material and could appear anywhere in the form, but gradually their dramatic nature began to be established. purpose: a) as a form of initial, expositional presentation; b) as a contrast to non-imitation constructions. Dufay and Ockeghem almost did not use the first of these techniques, while it became permanent in production. Obrecht and Josquin Despres and almost obligatory for polyphonics. Lasso and Palestrina forms; the second initially (Dufay, Ockeghem, Obrecht) came forward when the voice leading the cantus firmus fell silent, and later began to cover entire sections of a large form. These are the Agnus Dei II in Josquin Deprez's mass "L"homme armé super voces musicales" (see the musical example from this mass in the article Canon) and in Palestrina's masses, for example. in the six-voice "Ave Maria". The canon in its various forms (in its pure form or with the accompaniment of free votes) is introduced here and in similar ones. samples at the final stage of a large composition as a generalization factor. In the future, in the practice of free style, the canon almost never appeared in such a role. In four goals. In Palestrina's Mass "O Rex gloriae" two sections - Be-nedictus and Agnus - are written as exact two-headed. canons with free voices, creating a contrast of soulful and smooth to the more energetic sound of the previous and subsequent formations. In a number of canonical In the masses of Palestrina, the opposite technique is also found: the lyrical content of Crucifixus and Benedictus are based on non-imitation P., which contrasts with the other (canonical) parts of the work.
Large polyphonic forms of strict style in thematic. can be divided into two categories: those with cantus firmus and those without it. The former were more often created in the early stages of the development of the style, but in subsequent stages the cantus firmus gradually begins to disappear from creativity. practices, and large forms are created based on free development thematic material. At the same time, cantus firmus becomes the basis of the instrument. prod. 16 - 1st floor. 17th centuries (A. and G. Gabrieli, Frescobaldi, etc.) - ricercara, etc. and receives a new embodiment in the choral arrangements of Bach and his predecessors.
Forms in which there is a cantus firmus represent cycles of variations, since the same theme is carried out in them several times. once every other contrapuntal surroundings. Such a large form usually has introductory-interlude sections where the cantus firmus is absent, and the presentation is based either on its intonations or on neutral ones. In some cases, the relationships between sections containing cantus firmus and the introductory-interlude are subject to certain numerical formulas (the masses of J. Ockeghem, J. Obrecht), while in others they are free. The length of the introductory-interlude and cantus firmus-containing constructions can vary, but can also be constant for the entire work. The latter includes, for example, the above-mentioned mass “Ave Maria” by Palestrina, where both types of constructions have 21 bars each (in the conclusions the last sound is sometimes stretched over several bars), and this is how the whole form is formed: the cantus firmus is performed 23 times and so many same introductory-interlude constructions. P. of a strict style came to a similar form as a result of a long period of time. evolution of the very principle of variation. In a number of productions. cantus firmus conducted the borrowed melody in parts, and only concluded. section she appeared in full (Obrecht, masses “Maria zart”, “Je ne demande”). The latter was a thematic technique. synthesis, very important for the unity of the entire work. The changes made to the cantus firmus, usual for P.'s strict style (rhythmic increase and decrease, inversion, arching movement, etc.), hid, but did not destroy the variation. Therefore, variation cycles appeared in a very heterogeneous form. This is, for example, the cycle of the mass “Fortuna desperate” by Obrecht: the cantus firmus, taken from the middle voice of the chanson of the same name, is divided into three parts (ABC) and then the cantus from its upper voice (DE) is introduced. General cycle structure: Kyrie I - A; Kyrie II - A B C; Gloria - B AC (B A - in moving motion); Credo - CAB (C - in moving motion); Sanctus - A B C D; Osanna - ABC; Agnus I - A B C (and the same in decrease); Agnus III - D E (and the same in reduction).
Variation is presented here in the form of identity, in the form of germination, and even in the form of renewal, because in Sanctus and Agnus III the cantus firmus changes. Similarly, in the mass "Fortuna desperate" by Josquin Despres, three types of variation are used: the cantus firmus is first taken from the middle voice of the same chanson (Kyrie, Gloria), then from the upper voice (Credo) and from the lower voice (Sanctus), in the 5th Part of the mass uses the inversion of the upper voice of the chanson (Agnus I) and at the conclusion (Agnus III) the cantus firmus returns to the first melody. If we designate each cantus firmus with a symbol, we get the diagram: A B C B1 A. The form of the whole is based, therefore, on different types variability and also involves repetition. The same method is used in Josquin Despres's "Malheur me bat".
Opinion on neutralization of thematic material in polyphonic prod. strict style due to the stretching of durations in the voice leading the cantus firmus is only partly true. In plural In cases, composers resorted to this technique only in order to gradually approach the true rhythm of an everyday melody, lively and immediate, from long durations, to make its sound seem like the culmination of a thematic theme. development.
So, for example, the cantus firmus in Dufay’s mass “La mort de Saint Gothard” successively moves from long sounds to short ones:

As a result, the melody sounded, apparently, in the rhythm in which it was known in everyday life.
The same principle is used in Obrecht's "Malheur me bat" mass. We present its cantus firmus together with the published primary source - three-goal. Okeghem's chanson of the same name:

J. Obrecht. Mass "Malheur me bat".

J. Okegem. Chanson "Malheur me bat".
The effect of gradual discovery of the true basis of production. was extremely important in the conditions of that time: the listener suddenly recognized a familiar song. The secular art came into conflict with the demands made on the church. music by the clergy, which caused the persecution of the clergy against P. of the strict style. From a historical point of view, it happened the most important process freeing music from the power of religions. ideas.
The variational method of thematic development extended not only to the large composition, but also to its parts: cantus firmus in the form of a section. small revolutions, the ostinato was repeated, and subvariation cycles developed within the large form, especially frequent in production. Obrecht. For example, Kyrie II of the mass "Malheur me bat" is a variation on the short theme ut-ut-re-mi-mi-la, and Agnus III in the mass "Salve dia parens" is a variation on the short formula la-si-do-si , gradually compressing from 24 to 3 cycles.
Single repetitions immediately following their “theme” form a kind of period of two sentences, which is very important historically. point of view, because prepares a homophonic form. Such periods, however, are very fluid. They are rich in products. Palestrina (see example on column 345), they are also found in Obrecht, Josquin Depres, Lasso. Kyrie from Op. the last "Missa ad imitationem moduli "Puisque j"ai perdu"" is a period of the classical type of two sentences of 9 bars.
So inside the muses. forms of a strict style, principles matured, which in later classical. music, not so much in polyphonic as in homophonic-harmonic, were the main ones. Polyphonic prod. sometimes they included chordal episodes, which also gradually prepared the transition to homophony. Mode-tonal relations have also evolved in the same direction: the expositional sections of forms in Palestrina, as the finalist of a strict style, clearly gravitate towards tonic-dominant relations, then a departure towards the subdominant and a return to the main structure are noticeable. In the same spirit, the sphere of large-form cadences develops: the middle cadences usually end authentically in the key of the 5th century, the final cadences on the tonic are often plagal.
Small forms in strict style poetry depended on the text: within the stanza of the text, development occurred through repetition (imitation) of the theme, while changing the text entailed updating the thematic theme. material, which, in turn, could be presented imitatively. Music promotion forms occurred as the text progressed. This form is especially characteristic of the motet of the 15th-16th centuries. and was called the motet form. Madrigals of the 16th century were also constructed in this way, where a reprise-type form occasionally appears, for example. in Palestrina's madrigal "I vaghi fiori".
Large forms of P. of strict style, where there is no cantus firmus, develop according to the same motet type: each new phrase of the text leads to the formation new music. topics developed imitatively. With a short text, it is repeated with new music. themes that introduce a variety of shades will be expressed. character. The theory does not yet have other generalizations about the structure of this kind of polyphonic. forms
The work of classical composers can be considered the connecting link between the strict and free styles of music. 16-17 centuries J. P. Sweelinka, G. Frescobaldi, G. Schutza, C. Monteverdi. Sweelinck often used variational techniques of a strict style (theme in magnification, etc.), but at the same time, he widely represented modal chromatisms, which are possible only in a free style; "Fiori musicali" (1635) and other organ opus. Frescobaldi contain variations on the cantus firmus in various modifications, but they also contain the beginnings of fugue forms; The diatonicism of ancient modes was colored by chromaticisms in themes and their development. Monteverdi dept. prod., ch. arr. church ones, bear the stamp of a strict style (Mass “In illo tempore”, etc.), while madrigals almost break with it and should be classified as a free style. Contrast P. in them is associated with characteristic. intonations that convey the meaning of the word (joy, sadness, sigh, flight, etc.). Such is the madrigal “Piagn”e sospira” (1603), where the initial phrase “I cry and sigh” is especially emphasized, contrasting with the rest of the narrative:

In instr. prod. 17th century - suites, ancient sonatas da chiesa, etc. - usually had polyphonics. parts or at least polyphonic. techniques, incl. fugated order, which prepared the formation of instruments. fugues as independent. genre or in combination with a prelude (toccata, fantasy). The work of I. J. Froberger, G. Muffat, G. Purcell, D. Buxtehude, I. Pachelbel and other composers was an approach to the high development of free style music in music. J. S. Bach and G. F. Handel. Freestyle p. is kept in the wok. genres, but her main achievement is instrumental. music, to the 17th century. separated from the vocal and rapidly developing. Melodics - basic factor P. - in instr. genres was freed from the restrictive conditions of the wok. music (range of singing voices, ease of intonation, etc.) and in its new form contributed to the diversity of polyphonics. combinations, breadth of polyphonic. compositions, in turn influencing the wok. P. Ancient diatonic. modes gave way to two dominant modes - major and minor. Dissonance gained greater freedom, becoming the strongest means of modal tension. Mobile counterpoint and imitation began to be used more fully. forms, among which inversion (inversio, moto contraria) and augmentation (augmentation) remained, but the arching movement and its circulation, which dramatically changed the entire appearance and express the meaning of the new, individualized theme of free style, have almost disappeared. A system of variational forms based on cantus firmus, gradually faded away, replaced by a fugue that matured in the depths of the old style “Of all kinds. musical composition fugue is the only kind of fugue that could always withstand all the whims of fashion. Entire centuries could in no way force it to change its form, and the fugues, composed a hundred years ago, are still as new as if they were composed today,” noted F. V. Marpurg.
The type of melody in free style P. is completely different from that in the strict style. The unconstrained soaring of melodic-linear voices is caused by the introduction of instruments. genres. “...In vocal writing, melodic form formation is limited by the narrow scope of voices and their less mobility compared to instruments,” pointed out E. Kurt. “And historical development came to true linear polyphony only with the development of instrumental style, starting from the 17th century. In addition Moreover, vocal works, not only due to the smaller volume and mobility of voices, generally tend towards chordal roundness. Vocal writing cannot have the same independence from the chord phenomenon as instrumental polyphony, in which we find examples of the freest combination of lines. However, the same can be said for woks. prod. Bach (cantatas, masses), Beethoven ("Missa solemnis"), as well as polyphonic. prod. 20th century
Intonationally, the thematicism of P.'s free style is to a certain extent prepared by the strict style. These are the recitations. melodic turns with repetition of sound, starting from a weak beat and going to a strong beat for a second, third, fifth, etc. upward intervals, moves a fifth from the tonic, outlining modal foundations (see examples) - these and similar intonations later formed in free style "core" of the topic, followed by a "deployment" based on general forms melodic movements (scale-like, etc.). The fundamental difference between the themes of the free style and the themes of the strict style lies in their design into independent, monophonic-sounding and complete constructions, concisely expressing the main content of the work, while the thematicism in the strict style was fluid, presented stretto in conjunction with other imitating voices and only in in combination with them its content was revealed. The contours of the theme of the strict style were lost in the continuous movement and introduction of voices. The following example compares intonationally similar thematic examples of strict and free styles - from the mass “Pange lingua” by Josquin Despres and from Bach’s fugue on a theme by G. Legrenzi.
In the first case, a two-goal is deployed. canon, the title phrases of which flow into general melodies. forms of non-cadence movement, in the second - a clearly defined theme is shown, modulating into the tonality of the dominant with a cadence ending.

Thus, despite the intonation. The similarities and thematic themes of both samples are very different.
The special quality of Bach's polyphonic thematicism (we mean, first of all, the themes of fugues) as the pinnacle of P. free style consists of composure, the richness of potential harmony, and tonal, rhythmic, and sometimes genre specificity. In polyphonic topics, in their same head. projections Bach generalized modal-harmonic. forms created by his time. These are: the TSDT formula, emphasized in the themes, the breadth of sequences and tonal deviations, the introduction of the second low (“Neapolitan”) degree, the use of a diminished seventh, a diminished fourth, a diminished third and a fifth, formed by pairing the leading tone in a minor with other degrees of the mode. Bach's thematic style is characterized by melodiousness, which comes from folklore. intonations and chorale melodies; at the same time, it has a strong instrumental culture. melodica. A melodious beginning may be characteristic of an instrument. themes, instrumental - vocal. An important connection between these factors is created by hidden melodicity. line in themes - it flows more measuredly, giving the theme melodious properties. Both intonation the origins are especially clear in those cases when the melodious “core” finds development in the rapid movement of the continuing part of the theme, in the “unfolding”:

J. S. Bach. Fugue C major.

J. S. Bach. Duet a minor.
In complex fugues, the function of the “core” is often taken on by the first theme, the function of development by the second (The Well-Tempered Clavier, Vol. 1, Fugue cis-moll).
Fugu is usually classified in the genus Imitac. P., which is generally true, because the bright theme and its imitation dominate. But in general theoretical terms. In terms of fugue, it is a synthesis of imitation and contrasting P., because already the first imitation (answer) is accompanied by a counterposition that is not identical to the theme, and with the entry of other voices the contrast intensifies even more.

Musical encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet encyclopedia, Soviet composer. Ed. Yu. V. Keldysh. 1973-1982 .

Bach's creative heritage is immense. Only a small part of his compositions has survived to this day, but what has survived is enough to understand the enormity of his contribution to the development of musical art. His musical images were born from the elements of polyphony, “Counterpoint was a poetic language genius composer“,” wrote N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov.
Polyphony translated from Greek means polyphony. Moreover, there is such a polyphony in which each voice is equally important and leads its own expressive melody. After all, there is also such polyphony, in which only one voice, in which the melody sounds, has the leading significance. The rest of the voices only accompany him. This style is called homophony. An example of this style can be any romance or song with accompaniment.
It must be said that polyphonic music appeared many decades before Bach. With his art, which reached true perfection, he seemed to sum up the development of polyphony.
Over many centuries of existence, polyphonic music has developed its own special forms and genres, its own means of development. One of the most important among them is imitation. This Latin word(imitatio) means imitation. To imitate means to imitate. In music, this word refers to the repetition of a melody that has just been heard in another voice or another instrument. More precisely, this is an alternate entry of voices, in which each voice, a little late, repeats the same melody. Almost all polyphonic genres are based on this technique. It is through imitation that continuity of melodic movement is achieved.
Bach already used this technique in small plays that he wrote for his sons - small preludes and fugues, inventions and symphonies. It manifested itself very clearly in Bach's fifteen two-part inventions.
These works truly showed Bach's imagination and inventiveness. It is difficult to learn how to conduct several voices at the same time as if they were played not by one pianist, but by several singers. This is difficult to do even on a modern piano with a longer and more melodious sound than the ancient harpsichords; Bach always strived for his students to play smoothly and softly.
Bach wrote his inventions in order to teach his students a “beautiful and melodious method of performance.” But his interventions are not just exercises. These are highly artistic plays. Each of them is based on a short but expressive theme. In imitative works, this theme is first sounded in one voice, and then it is imitated by another voice. Moreover, the first one does not fall silent, he continues to move, highlighting the topic. This continuation of the melody is called counter-composition. In general, there are sections in the inventions in which the topic is not discussed. They can develop elements of the main melody. Such sections are called interludes (translated from Latin “inter” means “between”) because they are located between the topics.
But Bach did not always use only this principle. Another type of imitation is common in polyphonic music. In it, the next voice repeats not only the theme itself, but also the counterposition. That is, all voices perform the same melody, but not together, but taking turns, sometimes from the same sound, sometimes from different ones. Such an imitation is called canonical or simply canon. In essence, this is a continuous simulation. This development is inherent in Invention No. 8 in F major.
A real encyclopedia Bach's images became his famous “Well-Tempered Clavier”. Bach wrote his first volume in Köthen in 1722. It includes 24 preludes and fugues. Many years later, a second volume appeared in Leipzig, also consisting of 24 cycles. With this composition, Bach wanted to introduce into practice the ability to use all tonalities of the tempered scale.
The title itself indicated that this work was designed for a piano of a new tuning system and, due to its technical difficulties, can serve as a good course in the study of technique piano playing. Bach did not even imagine that the works he created would become treasures of art, that great geniuses would study from them: Beethoven, Chopin, Schumann, Liszt. In writing them, he set himself modest pedagogical goals.
The great Russian pianist A. G. Rubinstein in his book “Music and Its Representatives” called this work by Bach “a pearl in music”, said that “if only by misfortune all Bach’s motets, cantatas, masses and even the music for the “Passion” Lord" ( greatest essay Bach) were lost and only this would survive, then there would be no need to despair - the music would not perish.”
Each prelude and fugue is a two-part cycle. For the most part they are contrasting to each other. Almost all preludes are improvisational in nature. Fugues are a strictly polyphonic work. But just as in the suite, each cycle is united by a common tonality and subtle internal connections.
A striking example of such a small cycle is the Prelude and Fugue in D major from the 1st volume of The Well-Tempered Clavier.
The airy fabric of the prelude, as if woven from lace, and the feeling of its light, rushing forward movement, are complemented by a clear, chiseled rhythm and the masculine character of the fugue.
The prelude is written according to all the laws of the prelude improvisational genre. It's as if she's all growing out of a small initial theme, which already shows both the nature of the movement and the features of the texture.
The pattern of melody is continuously woven into right hand, while the left one only provides light support. Both hands seem to be leading their own line. In terms of technique, this is very reminiscent of the desire to convey a light violin texture on the harpsichord. The entire prelude is very similar to violin improvisation accompanied by a cymbal and is a continuous movement. The sections seem to be strung on top of each other.
Now let's move on to the fugue. Ego is the highest, most complex form of polyphonic music. The fugue is constructed according to special, very strict laws. The word "fugue" in Latin means running.
A fugue is usually based on one theme - a bright, memorable one. It is sequentially presented by all voices, depending on the number of which fugues are two-voice, three-voice and even five-voice. The main method of constructing a fugue is the same imitation. In a fugue, as in an invention, there are counterpositions and interludes. There are fugues based on not one theme, but two, and even three. Then they are respectively called double or triple.
In the fugue in D major, as in the prelude, there is no transition from one state to another, there is no internal growth of images. It is very reminiscent of an Italian opera aria, in which the characteristics of the musical image are holistic and closed. This image is presented in the theme, and its further development only complements and does not change its essence.
This theme itself is very close in nature to the heroic images of oratorio-cantata music of that time.
Both the theme and its presentation in the exhibition affirm courageous energy and determination. In the exhibition, the theme is presented in all voices consistently. In the middle section of the fugue - the development - intensive development of the theme is given using various means: increased dynamics, frequent changes of keys, harmonic instability. With the return of the main key, the third section of the fugue begins - the reprise. From French this word is translated as renewal, repetition. The theme in the reprise sounds only in the main key. In contrast to the development with its tonal instability, the reprise should give us a feeling of tonal balance, stability and completeness of the entire work.