). As sources about the prehistoric times of cultures that until recently were deprived of writing, there can be oral traditions passed down from generation to generation.

Since data about prehistory rarely concerns individuals and does not even always say anything about ethnic groups, the basic social unit of human prehistory is the archaeological culture. All terms and periodizations of this era, such as Neanderthal or Iron Age, are retrospective and largely arbitrary, and their precise definition is a matter of debate.

Terminology

A synonym for "prehistoric period" is the term " prehistory”, which is used less frequently in Russian-language literature than similar terms in foreign literature(English) prehistory, German Urgeschichte).

To designate the final stage of the prehistoric era of a culture, when it itself has not yet created its own written language, but is already mentioned in the written monuments of other peoples, the term “protohistory” (English) is often used in foreign literature. protohistory, German Frühgeschichte). To replace the term primitive communal system, characterizing the social structure before the emergence of power, some historians use the terms “savagery”, “anarchy”, “primitive communism”, “pre-civilization period” and others. This term has not taken root in Russian literature.

Non-classical historians deny the very existence of communities and primitive communal system, relationship, identity of power and violence.

From the following stages of social development primitive communal system was distinguished by the absence of private property, classes and the state. Modern studies of primitive society, according to neo-historians who deny the traditional periodization of the development of human society, refute the existence of such social order and the existence of communities, communal property under the primitive communal system, and subsequently, as a natural result of the non-existence of the primitive communal system - the non-existence of communal agricultural land tenure until the end of the 18th century in most countries of the world, including Russia, at least since the Neolithic.

Periods of development of primitive society

At different times, different periodizations of the development of human society have been proposed. Thus, A. Ferguson and then Morgan used a periodization of history that included three stages: savagery, barbarism and civilization, and the first two stages were divided by Morgan into three stages (lower, middle and higher) each. At the stage of savagery, human activity was dominated by hunting, fishing and gathering, there was no private property, and equality existed. At the stage of barbarism, agriculture and cattle breeding appear, private property and social hierarchy arise. The third stage - civilization - is associated with the emergence of the state, class society, cities, writing, etc.

Morgan considered the earliest stage of development of human society to be the lowest stage of savagery, which began with the formation of articulate speech; the middle stage of savagery, according to his classification, begins with the use of fire and the appearance of fish food in the diet, and the highest stage of savagery with the invention of the onion. The lowest stage of barbarism, according to his classification, begins with the advent of pottery, the middle stage of barbarism with the transition to agriculture and cattle breeding, and the highest stage of barbarism with the beginning of the use of iron.

The most developed periodization is archaeological, which is based on a comparison of man-made tools, their materials, forms of dwellings, burials, etc. According to this principle, the history of mankind is mainly divided into the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.

era	Period in Europe	Periodization	Characteristic	Human species
Old Stone Age or Paleolithic	2.4 million - 10000 BC e.	Early (Lower) Paleolithic 2.4 million - 600,000 BC e. Middle Paleolithic 600,000-35,000 BC e. Late (Upper) Paleolithic 35,000-10,000 BC e.	The time of hunters and gatherers. The beginning of flint tools, which gradually became more complex and specialized.	Hominids, species: Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens präsapiens, Homo heidelbergensis, Middle Paleolithic Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens sapiens.
Middle Stone Age or Mesolithic	10,000-5000 BC e.		Begins at the end of the Pleistocene in Europe. Hunters and gatherers developed a highly developed culture of making tools from stone and bone, as well as long-range weapons such as arrows and bows.	Homo sapiens sapiens
New Stone Age or Neolithic	5000-2000 BC e.	Early Neolithic Middle Neolithic Late Neolithic	The emergence of the Neolithic is associated with the Neolithic revolution. At the same time, the oldest finds of ceramics dating back about 12,000 years appear in the Far East, although the European Neolithic period begins in the Middle East with the Pre-Pottery Neolithic. New methods of farming are emerging, instead of gathering and hunting farming (“appropriating”) - “producing” (farming, cattle breeding), which later spread to Europe. The Late Neolithic often progresses into the next stage, the Copper Age, Chalcolithic or Chalcolithic, without a break in cultural continuity. The latter is characterized by the second production revolution, the most important feature of which is the appearance of metal tools.	Homo sapiens sapiens
Bronze Age	3500-800 BC e.	Early history	The spread of metallurgy makes it possible to obtain and process metals: (gold, copper, bronze). The first written sources in Western Asia and the Aegean.	Homo sapiens sapiens
Iron Age	juice. 800 BC e.	Early history OK. 800-500 BC e.		Homo sapiens sapiens

Stone Age

The Stone Age is the oldest period in human history, when the main tools and weapons were made mainly of stone, but wood and bone were also used. At the end of the Stone Age, the use of clay spread (dishes, brick buildings, sculpture).

Periodization of the Stone Age:

• Paleolithic:
  • Lower Paleolithic - the period of the appearance of the most ancient species of people and widespread Homo erectus .
  • Middle Paleolithic - the period of displacement of erecti by evolutionarily more advanced species of people, including modern man. Neanderthals dominated Europe throughout the Middle Paleolithic.
  • The Upper Paleolithic is the period of dominance of the modern species of people throughout the globe during the era of the last glaciation.
• Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic; the terminology depends on the extent to which the region has been affected by the loss of megafauna as a result of glacier melting. The period is characterized by the development of technology for the production of stone tools and general human culture. There is no ceramics.
• Neolithic - the era of the emergence of agriculture. Tools and weapons are still made of stone, but their production is being brought to perfection, and ceramics are widely distributed.

Copper Age

Copper Age, Copper-Stone Age, Chalcolithic (Greek. χαλκός "copper" + Greek λίθος “stone”) or Chalcolithic (lat. aeneus"copper" + Greek λίθος "stone")) - a period in the history of primitive society, a transitional period from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. Approximately covers the period 4-3 thousand BC. e., but in some territories it exists longer, and in some it is absent altogether. Most often the Chalcolithic is included in the Bronze Age, but sometimes it is also considered separate period. During the Eneolithic, copper tools were common, but stone ones still predominated.

Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the leading role of bronze products, which was associated with the improvement of the processing of metals such as copper and tin obtained from ore deposits, and the subsequent production of bronze from them. The Bronze Age is the second, later phase of the Early Metal Age, which replaced the Copper Age and preceded the Iron Age. In general, the chronological framework of the Bronze Age: 35/33 - 13/11 centuries. BC e., but different cultures they differ. In the Eastern Mediterranean, the end of the Bronze Age is associated with the almost synchronous destruction of all local civilizations at the turn of the 13th-12th centuries. BC e., known as the bronze collapse, while in western Europe the transition from the bronze to the iron age dragged on for several more centuries and ended with the emergence of the first cultures of antiquity - ancient Greece and ancient Rome.

Bronze Age periods:

1. Early Bronze Age
2. Middle Bronze Age
3. Late Bronze Age

Iron Age

Iron Age coin hoard

The Iron Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. Bronze Age civilizations go beyond the history of primitive society; other peoples' civilization takes shape during the Iron Age.

The term "Iron Age" is usually applied to the "barbarian" cultures of Europe that existed simultaneously with the great civilizations of antiquity (Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Parthia). The “barbarians” were distinguished from ancient cultures by the absence or rare use of writing, and therefore information about them has reached us either from archaeological data or from mentions in ancient sources. On the territory of Europe during the Iron Age, M. B. Shchukin identified six “barbarian worlds”:

• Proto-Germans (mainly Jastorf culture + southern Scandinavia);
• mostly Proto-Baltic cultures of the forest zone (possibly including Proto-Slavs);
• proto-Finno-Ugric and proto-Sami cultures of the northern forest zone (mainly along rivers and lakes);
• steppe Iranian-speaking cultures (Scythians, Sarmatians, etc.);
• pastoral-agricultural cultures of the Thracians, Dacians and Getae.

History of the development of public relations

The first tools of human labor were a chipped stone and a stick. People earned their livelihood by hunting, which they did together, and gathering. The communities of people were small, they led nomadic image life, moving in search of food. But some communities of people who lived in the most favorable conditions began to move towards partial settlement.

The most important stage in human development was the emergence of language. Instead of the signal language of animals, which facilitates their coordination during the hunt, people were able to express in language the abstract concepts of “stone in general”, “beast in general”. This use of language led to the opportunity to teach offspring with words, and not just by example, to plan actions before the hunt, and not during it, etc.

Any spoils were divided among the entire group of people. Tools, household utensils, and jewelry were in the use of individual people, but the owner of the thing was obliged to share it, and in addition, anyone could take someone else’s thing and use it without asking (remnants of this are still found among some peoples).

A person’s natural breadwinner was his mother - at first she fed him with her milk, then generally took upon herself the responsibility of providing him with food and everything necessary for life. This food had to be hunted by men - the mother's brothers who belonged to her clan. Thus, cells began to form, consisting of several brothers, several sisters and the children of the latter. They lived in communal dwellings.

Experts now generally believe that during the Paleolithic and Neolithic times - 50-20 thousand years ago - the social status of women and men was equal, although previously it was believed that matriarchy first reigned.

At first, neighboring clans and tribes exchanged what nature gave them: salt, rare stones, etc. Both entire communities and individuals; This phenomenon is called gift exchange. One of its varieties was “silent exchange”. Then tribes of farmers, cattle breeders and those who ran agricultural and livestock farming emerged, and between tribes with different economic orientations, and subsequently within tribes, the exchange of products of their labor developed.

Some researchers believe that tribes of hunters who did not accept an agrarian way of life began to “hunt” peasant communities, taking away food and property. This is how a dual system of producing rural communities and squads of former hunters robbing them developed. The leaders of the hunters gradually moved from raiding robbery of peasants to regular regulated exactions (tribute). For self-defense and to protect citizens from attacks by competitors, fortified cities were built. The last stage of pre-state development of society was the so-called military democracy.

Power and social norms in primitive society

The emergence of religion

Primitive tribes did not have special cult ministers; religious and magical rituals were performed primarily by the heads of clan groups on behalf of the entire clan, or by people whose personal qualities earned them a reputation as knowing the techniques of influencing the world of spirits and gods (healers, shamans, etc.). With the development of social differentiation, professional priests emerge, arrogating to themselves the exclusive right to communicate with spirits and gods.

see also

• Early history (protohistory)

Notes

Links

• Alekseev V.P., Pershits A.I. History of primitive society: Textbook. for universities for special purposes "Story". - M.: Higher. school, 1990

• "The transition from primitive society to class society: paths and options for development." Part I

The history of the human race goes back thousands of years, and the very first stage of human development is primitive society. This is a huge historical layer that begins with the appearance of ancient people and ends with the emergence of states and civilizations.

General characteristics of primitive society

The time of primitive society is not only the initial, but also the longest period in the history of human evolution, which covers more than two million years. During this time, primitive society went through a huge path of development, during which the economic structure, social connections, norms of behavior, organization of power, and ancient man’s idea of ​​the world changed.

During this period, the formation of the physical type of modern man took place, various tools were created, and technologies for their production were invented and improved. Through hard physical labor and gradual discoveries, primitive people managed to create a unique culture bit by bit and significantly enrich their spiritual life.

Rice. 1. Primitive man.

The main features of primitive society include:

• collective work;
• tribal organization;
• lack of personal property;
• equal distribution of food and benefits;
• primitive tools labor.

All the peoples of the world went through the primitive system. There is no civilization on the planet that has “jumped” over this segment of development. Despite the fact that primitive society has long since sunk into summer, there are still small tribes left on Earth who lead a characteristic way of life and preserve remnants of the distant past.

Stages of primitive society

There are several types of chronicles of primitive society, among which there are periodization according to the type of production, archaeological periodization and some others.

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The division of the era of primitive society according to the type of organization of the social system is very indicative. There are three stages, each of which has its own distinctive features:

• Primitive human herd. The initial stage of primitive society, during which the foundations of behavior and social relationships were laid. The main occupation of the members of the primitive herd was hunting and gathering, and they were led by the strongest and most successful hunter.
• It was a group of people united by blood kinship and joint farming. Several communities living in the neighborhood formed a tribe. At this stage, ancient people began to expand their spheres of activity, mastering, in addition to the usual hunting and gathering, fishing, cattle breeding, and agriculture. New methods of processing natural materials and, accordingly, new types of tools and weapons arose. The management of the clan community was in the hands of the oldest representative of the clan.

Rice. 2. Tribal community.

• Primitive neighborhood community. Characterized by more complex social structure, with an appropriating and producing economy, labor distribution, growing needs, the beginnings of individual property and social inequality. At the head of such a community was an elected leader.

The culture of primitive society

Primitive culture is characterized by stability and extreme slow pace development. During this period, humanity managed to accumulate a huge amount of knowledge about the world around us: animals, plants, natural phenomena, the properties of various materials.

Thanks to the knowledge gained, ancient people successfully practiced healing and farming, they had good spatial orientation in unfamiliar terrain, and they could predict changes in the weather.

The most important achievement of primitive culture was the emergence of primitive writing. At first, these were only primitive signs and symbols that were necessary to establish ownership and conduct trade affairs. Later, with the advent of ancient civilizations, they developed into full-fledged writing.

The art of primitive society played a big role in educating the younger generation and passing on important information to descendants. Of particular importance were petroglyphs - rock paintings that were carved on the surface of rocks or made with paints. The most popular were images of magical rituals, hunting scenes, people and mythological creatures.

Rice. 3. Petroglyphs.

The most important type of primitive art was ornament - various lines, geometric figures, primitive images of animals and plants that were repeated in a certain sequence. The ornament served not only as decoration: it was a sign of belonging to a particular tribe and protected the owner from evil forces.

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When studying the topic “Primitive Society” according to the 6th grade history program, we learned briefly about the features of the era of primitive society: what characteristic features it had, what time period it covered and into what periods it was divided. We also found out what achievements in the field of culture and art corresponded to this period of development of human society.

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Modern science suggests that all the diversity of current space objects was formed about 20 billion years ago. The Sun, one of the many stars in our Galaxy, arose 10 billion years ago. According to scientists, our Earth is an ordinary planet solar system- has an age of 4.6 billion years. It is currently generally accepted that man began to separate from the animal world about 3 million years ago.

There are several options for the periodization of humanity at the stage of the primitive communal system. Most often they use an archaeological scheme based on differences in the material and technique of making tools. In accordance with it in ancient era There are three periods:

• stone Age(from the emergence of man to the 4th-3rd millennium BC);
• bronze age(IV-III millennium - until the beginning of the 1st millennium BC);
• iron age(from the 1st millennium BC).

In turn, the Stone Age is divided into Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), New Stone Age (Neolithic) and transitional to bronze Copperstone Age (Chalcolithic).

Each period is distinguished by: 1) the degree of development of tools, 2) the materials from which they were made, 3) the quality of housing, 4) the appropriate organization of farming.

The primitive era of humanity is characterized by:

• low level of development of productive forces, their slow improvement;
• collective appropriation of natural resources and production results;
• equitable distribution;
• socio-economic equality;
• lack of private property, exploitation of man by man, classes, states.

The appearance of the first australopithecus marked the birth of material culture, directly related to the production of tools, which became a means for archaeologists to determine the main stages of the development of ancient humanity.

The rich and generous nature of that time did not help to accelerate this process; only with the advent of harsh conditions of the Ice Age, with increased labor activity primitive man in his difficult struggle for existence, new skills appear, tools are improved, and new social forms are developed.

The path of humanity in the conditions of the primitive communal system passed through a number of stages: 1) mastery of fire; 2) collective hunting of large animals; 3) adaptation to the conditions of a melted glacier; 4) invention of the bow; 5) transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering, fishing) to a producing economy (cattle breeding and agriculture); 6) discovery of metal (copper, bronze, iron); 7) creation of a complex tribal organization of society.

The pace of development of human culture gradually accelerated, especially with the transition to a productive economy. But another feature has emerged - the geographical unevenness of the development of society. Areas with an unfavorable, harsh geographical environment continued to develop slowly, while areas with a mild climate, reserves of ores and minerals moved faster towards civilization.

A giant glacier (about 100 thousand years ago) contributed to the appearance on the planet of a special flora and fauna in the most difficult climatic conditions. In accordance with this, the history of human society is divided into three different periods: 1) pre-glacial with a warm subtropical climate; 2) glacial and 3) post-glacial. Each of these periods corresponds to a certain physical type of person: in the pre-glacial period - archaeoanthropus (pithecanthropus, synanthropus, etc.), in glacial - paleoanthropes (Neanderthal man), at the end of the Ice Age, in the Late Paleolithic, - neoanthropes, modern people.

Human Origins

U different nations in different regions of the Earth the appearance of certain tools and forms public life did not happen at the same time. There was a process of human formation (anthropogenesis, from the Greek "anthropos" - man, "genesis" - origin) and the formation of human society (sociogenesis, from the Latin "societas" - society and the Greek "genesis" - origin).

Scientists have identified the following problems of anthropogenesis: 1) the origin of man as a species, the place and chronology of this phenomenon, the definition of the line between man as an actively thinking creature of living nature and his closest ancestors; 2) the connection between anthropogenesis and the development of material production; 3) raceogenesis - the study of the causes and processes of racial-genetic differences.

The origin of man has always been considered from two mutually exclusive positions: as the result of a supernatural, divine, cosmic (alien in the modern version) beginning and as a result of the evolutionary development of living nature, as a kind of pinnacle of this process.

In Soviet science, the evolutionary view of anthropogenesis dominated. Back in the 17th century. Materialist scientists, based on the idea of ​​the unity of the entire animal world, considered man as a part of nature and expressed the idea of ​​his origin from ancient apes. This view did not appear by chance, since significant scientific material had been accumulated that proved the biological similarity of the structure of the human body with the body of animals. Based on the achievements of natural science, Charles Darwin in his work “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection” (1871), showing the evolutionary unity, regularity and sequence of development of the animal world, proved that man descended from ancient apes.

The most ancient ancestors of modern man resembled apes, who, unlike animals, were able to produce tools. In the scientific literature, this type of ape-man is called homo habilis - a skilled man. The further evolution of Habilis led to the appearance 1.5-1.6 million years ago of the so-called Pithecanthropus (from the Greek "pithekos" - monkey, "anthropos" - man), or archanthropes (from the Greek "achaios" - ancient). Archanthropes were already people. 300-200 thousand years ago, archanthropes were replaced by a more developed type of person - paleoanthropes, or Neanderthals (according to the place of their first discovery in the Neanderthal area in Germany).

The process of separation of our distant ancestors from the world of great apes was very slow.

The general scheme of human evolution is as follows:

• Australopithecus Homo;
• Homo erectus (early hominids: Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus);
• a person of modern physical appearance (late hominids: Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic people).

As a result of the accumulation of new anthropological and archaeological materials modern science suggests that the process of formation of modern people took place in the territory covering South-Eastern Europe, North Africa and Western Asia. From this zone, the modern type of man, as the most developed, settled throughout the entire territory of the earth. As a result of settlement, extensive cultural and historical communities emerged. Scientists believe that these communities corresponded to the linguistic families from which came the peoples who currently inhabit our country. The following cultural and historical communities are distinguished:

• Indo-European;
• Ugro-Finnish;
• Turkic;
• Iberian-Caucasian.

The largest language family- Indo-European. It took shape on the territory of modern Iran and Asia Minor, and spread to Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia Minor and Central Asia and the region of the Hindustan Peninsula. Subsequently, the Indo-European cultural community was divided into several branches:

1. Slavic: eastern, western and southern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Croats, etc.);
2. Western European: British, Germans, French, etc.;
3. eastern: Indians, Tajiks, Iranians, Armenians, etc.

A complex problem is raceogenesis. All modern humanity is divided into several large racial trunks - Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid and Australoid, each of which, in turn, includes several large racial divisions and a large number of small racial groups. The composition of the races basically coincided with the boundaries of the continents: the Caucasoid race was formed mainly in Europe, the Negroid race in Africa, and the Mongoloid race in Asia. Each large race has its own characteristics that characterize it: facial structure, hair pigmentation, eye color, etc. Acquired signs changed over time in a certain direction, disappeared or intensified. Within the large races - Mongoloid, Negroid and Caucasoid - separate large branches arose. Thus, within the Mongoloid race there are South Asian, Siberian and American branches, the Negroid is divided into two, and within the Caucasoid race there are northern and southern branches.

Historically, the development of mankind has proceeded in constant dialectical unity different beginnings- evolutionary and the phenomenon of a qualitative leap, biological and social. Substitution of one for the other is completely excluded. At the same time, we must not forget that the development of mankind took place in constant and close interaction with nature. And the more perfect a person became, the more actively he influenced it and adapted it to his needs. However, in archaeological eras, unlike industrial ones, this adaptation was always rational; man thought of himself only as a part of his natural environment.

Decomposition of the primitive communal system

Around the 4th-5th millennium BC. The decomposition of primitive society began. The main factors that contributed to this process: 1) the Neolithic revolution; 2) intensification of agriculture; 3) development of specialized cattle breeding; 4) the emergence of metallurgy; 5) the formation of a specialized craft; 6) development of trade.

With the development of plow farming, agricultural labor passed from women's hands to men's, and a man - a farmer and warrior - became the head of the family. Accumulation in different families was created unequally, and each family, accumulating property, tried to keep it in the family. The product gradually ceases to be divided among community members, and property begins to pass from father to children, the foundations of private ownership of the means of production are laid.

From the account of kinship on the maternal side they move to the account of kinship on the father's side - patriarchy takes shape. The shape changes accordingly family relations; a patriarchal family based on private property arises.

The subordinate position of women is reflected, in particular, in the fact that mandatory monogamy is established only for women, while polygamy (polygamy) is allowed for men.

Increased labor productivity, increased exchange, constant wars- all this led to the emergence of property stratification among the tribes. Property inequality gave rise to social inequality. The top of the family aristocracy was formed, which was actually in charge of all affairs. Noble members of the community sat on the tribal council and were in charge of the cult of the gods. Of particular importance was the identification of military leaders and priests. Along with property and social differentiation within the clan community, differentiation also occurs within the tribe between separate births. On the one hand, strong and rich clans stand out, and on the other, weak and impoverished ones.

Signs of the collapse of the tribal system:

• emergence of property inequality;
• allocation of nobility;
• concentration of wealth and power in the hands of tribal leaders;
• frequent armed clashes;
• turning prisoners into slaves;
• transformation of the clan from a consanguineous collective into a territorial community.

In different regions of the world, the destruction of primitive communal relations did not occur simultaneously; the models of transition to a higher formation were also varied: some peoples formed early class states, others formed slave states, many peoples bypassed the slave system and went straight to feudalism, and some to colonial capitalism ( peoples of America, Australia).

Characteristics of primitive tribes on the territory of our Fatherland

The periods of primitive society on the territory of our Fatherland correspond to the main periodization (accepted in archaeology).

Parking lots primitive people open on site of Eastern Europe, Northern Asia, Crimea, Caucasus, Siberia and Far East. For example, on the territory of the former USSR, the remains of above-ground dwellings belonging to early paleolithic, were discovered near the village of Molodovo on the Dniester. They were an oval arrangement of specially selected large mammoth bones. Traces of 15 fires located in different parts dwellings. About 1,500 Upper Paleolithic human settlements have been discovered in Russia. When choosing places for settlements, people of the Late Ice Age cared primarily about the convenience of hunting, so settlements were usually located at the edge of river valleys, often in groups. Such a group of Paleolithic settlements is known on the Don in the Voronezh region near the villages of Kostenki and Borshevo, on the Desna - near Novgorod-Seversky, in the area of ​​the Dnieper rapids. Siberian ancient Paleolithic monuments are also located in groups. Unlike the earlier period, Late Paleolithic dwellings are more advanced. Large, connected dwellings and settlements consisting of individual small huts confirm the conclusion about the coexistence of communities and communal farming. Within communities, individual dwellings and centers of large dwellings could belong to individual paired families.

In the developed Neolithic on the European territory of Russia, significant changes were observed in the distribution of cultures, many new ones were formed archaeological cultures, which is associated with the development of the economy as a whole, with changes ethnic composition Neolithic population, movement of Neolithic tribes. This process was greatly influenced by the tribes of pit-comb ceramics, with which the origin of many forest Neolithic cultures in the Volga and Oka basin is associated: Upper Volga, Valdai, Ryazan, Belev.

The tribes of the so-called Belev culture (named after the settlement of the city of Belev) occupied, for example, the region of the upper reaches of the Oka. It is characterized by the widespread use of massive and long knife-like plates in the manufacture of tools. Narrow and long leaf-shaped daggers and arrowheads were made from them. At the same time, in this culture, Paleolithic-looking incisors and side scrapers existed for a long time. The surface of the vessels was covered with a pattern in the form of rhombic or oval depressions.

Neolithic cultures in the Amur region, Primorye and northeast Asia were discovered relatively recently. Their discovery and research is mainly associated with the works of academicians A.P. Okladnikov and A.P. Derevianko.

In the Amur basin, four Neolithic cultures are known: Novopetrovsk, Gromatukha, Osinovo-Ozersk and Lower Amur. At the end of the Neolithic, a division of labor occurred among the tribes of the Far East: some began to engage in agriculture, others in fishing, hunting and gathering, which determined the features of their development in the future. In general, on the territory of our country in the history of primitive society, several stages are distinguished according to the degree of development of productive forces, public organization, as well as forms of economy and movement from a lower level to a higher one - from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age, from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age.

An important stage in the history of primitive man was the first economic revolution (Neolithic), when there was a transition from an appropriating economy to a producing economy. As the social division of labor deepened and its productivity grew in primitive society, exchange intensified, a surplus product arose, which became the basis for the emergence of private property and property inequality. The primitive society on the territory of Russia was replaced by a feudal society.

The culture of primitive society

According to researcher A.I. Chernokozov, primitive culture is a complex phenomenon that amazes the imagination of a research scientist, but not with its primitiveness, but with a unique and majestic, even on a cosmic scale, leap to a higher state.

First of all, the following facts help to holistically comprehend anthroposociogenesis:

1. the extinction in a phenomenally short natural-historical period of 30 species and 20 genera of highly developed primates, the most modern creatures within the biological form that flourished in the Tertiary period. Researchers are amazed by the huge morphological diversity of these creatures: from Gigantopithecus - a creature weighing about 500 kilograms - to a humanoid creature the size of a cat;
2. the use of the first stone tools in conflicts with their own kind (almost all australopithecus skulls bear traces of blows from stone tools). There are anthropologists' conclusions about unusually frequent cases violent death. And in this sense, it would be more correct to talk not about stone tools, but about stone weapons.

In the study of the culture of primitive man, archaeological and ethnographic methods are used.

Archaeological finds are mainly tools that correspond to certain historical eras. During the Paleolithic period - points, scrapers, awls and piercings. In more late period Along with long ones, hunters make shorter dart spears that can be thrown over a long distance.

One of the most significant achievements of the Upper Paleolithic period was the discovery of several ways to make fire. The first method was the striking of a spark by sharp impacts of flint on the ore mineral pyrite. The second method was to make fire by rubbing wood against wood, but the reliability of data on the widespread use of this method still raises doubts among scientists.

The formation of a mature form of a social organism is associated with the formation of the maternal family. With the help of establishing certain traditions, they learned to regulate relations between the sexes, methods and forms of raising children. The structure of collectivist consciousness was formed. Certain types of mythological consciousness arose, which included the first forms: religious, moral, technological, labor.

Unfortunately, researchers have still not been able to find works of art that date back to an earlier historical period than the Late Paleolithic. The most common sculptural image During this period there were female figurines.

Each tribe had its own gods, its own revered mythological creatures. This belief is originally rooted in the veneration of nature spirits. In addition, each tribe has its own sacred ancestors, who are most often identified with certain animals. This belief system was called totemism.

Another belief characteristic of myth is fetishism. Fetishism is the deification of a special object, which is perceived as a carrier of demonic powers and which is mystically connected with the fate of a given tribe. An object that is treated in this way is a fetish.

In the conditions of primitive society, it develops magical art. Magic could not influence the objective properties of things, but it fully controlled the psyche of primitive man. Magic words and rituals influenced a person - and not on his mind, which was still too weak and undeveloped, but on his unconscious. Magic could not physically cause rain or ensure a harvest, but it inspired people with unity, optimism and success in a difficult and dangerous task.

Overall in primitive culture the essence of man, his organic connection with nature, and prospects for further development are revealed.

According to scientific data, primitive people appeared about 4 million years ago. Over the course of many millennia, they evolved, that is, they improved not only in terms of development but also in appearance. Historical anthropology divides primitive people into several species, which successively replaced each other. What are they anatomical features each type of primitive people, and in what time period did they exist? Read about all this below.

Primitive people - who are they?

The most ancient people lived in Africa more than 2 million years ago. This is confirmed by numerous archaeological finds. However, it is known for certain that for the first time humanoid creatures moving confidently on their hind limbs (and this is the most important feature in defining a primitive man) appeared much earlier - 4 million years ago. This characteristic of ancient people, such as upright walking, was first identified in creatures to which scientists gave the name “australopithecus.”

As a result of centuries of evolution, they were replaced by the more advanced Homo habls, also known as “homo habilis.” He was replaced by humanoid creatures, whose representatives were called Homo erectus, which translated from Latin means “upright man.” And only after almost one and a half million years did more perfect view primitive man, who most resembled the modern intelligent population of the Earth - Homo sapiens or “reasonable man”. As can be seen from all of the above, primitive people slowly, but at the same time very effectively developed, mastering new opportunities. Let us consider in more detail what all these human ancestors were, what their activities were and what they looked like.

Australopithecus: external features and lifestyle

Historical anthropology classifies Australopithecus as one of the very first apes to walk on their hind limbs. The origin of this kind of primitive people began in East Africa more than 4 million years ago. For almost 2 million years, these creatures spread across the continent. The oldest man, whose height averaged 135 cm, weighed no more than 55 kg. Unlike monkeys, australopithecines had more pronounced sexual dimorphism, but the structure of the canines in male and female individuals was almost the same. The skull of this species was relatively small and had a volume of no more than 600 cm3. The main activity of Australopithecus was practically no different from that practiced by modern apes, and boiled down to obtaining food and protecting against natural enemies.

A skilled person: features of anatomy and lifestyle

(translated from Latin as “skillful man”) appeared as a separate independent species of anthropoids 2 million years ago on the African continent. This ancient man, whose height often reached 160 cm, had a more developed brain than that of Australopithecus - about 700 cm 3. The teeth and fingers of the upper limbs of Homo habilis were almost completely similar to those of humans, but the large brow ridges and jaws made it look like monkeys. In addition to gathering, a skilled person hunted using stone blocks, and knew how to use processed tracing paper to cut up animal carcasses. This suggests that Homo habilis is the first humanoid creature with labor skills.

Homo erectus: appearance

The anatomical characteristic of the ancient humans known as Homo erectus was a marked increase in cranial volume, which led scientists to claim that their brains were comparable in size to those of modern humans. and the jaws of Homo habilis remained massive, but were not as pronounced as those of their predecessors. The physique was almost the same as that of a modern person. Judging by archaeological finds, Homo erectus led and knew how to make fire. Representatives of this species lived in fairly large groups in caves. The main occupation of skilled man was gathering (mainly for women and children), hunting and fishing, clothing production. Homo erectus was one of the first to realize the need to create food reserves.

appearance and lifestyle

Neanderthals appeared much later than their predecessors - about 250 thousand years ago. What was this ancient man like? His height reached 170 cm, and his skull volume was 1200 cm 3. In addition to Africa and Asia, these also settled in Europe. Maximum amount Neanderthals in one group reached 100 people. Unlike their predecessors, they had rudimentary forms of speech, which allowed their fellow tribesmen to exchange information and interact more harmoniously with each other. The main occupation of this human ancestor was hunting. Their success in obtaining food was ensured by a variety of tools: spears, long pointed fragments of stones that were used as knives, and traps dug in the ground with stakes. Neanderthals used the resulting materials (hides, skins) to make clothing and shoes.

Cro-Magnons: the final stage of the evolution of primitive man

Cro-Magnons or (Homo Sapiens) - this is the last known to science the oldest man, whose height already reached 170-190 cm. The external resemblance of this type of primitive people to monkeys was almost imperceptible, since the brow ridges were reduced, and lower jaw no longer protruded forward. Cro-Magnons made tools not only from stone, but also from wood and bone. In addition to hunting, these human ancestors were engaged in agriculture and initial forms animal husbandry (tamed wild animals).

The level of thinking of the Cro-Magnons was significantly higher than their predecessors. This allowed them to create cohesive social groups. The herd principle of existence was replaced by the tribal system and the creation of the rudiments of socio-economic laws.

Today, thanks to the work of archaeologists, it is possible to reconstruct the entire history of human development. Since most of the skeletons belonging to the era of interest to us were found on the African continent, scientists recognize this territory as the historical homeland of primitive people - Australopithecus and, later, Homo habilis. Stone tools appeared about 2-2.5 million years ago, which allows historians to consider this time as a kind of starting point.

Unlike his ancestors, a “skillful” person - using primitive tools - moves confidently on his feet, and his hands can not only hold a stone or a stick, but also use them as the first primitive tools. However, this is the difference homo sapiens from Australopithecus end: they also communicate through screams, exclamations and gestures.

Even after a million years, the creature, which historians call “upright man,” still resembled a monkey not only in appearance - it was covered with hair, had the appropriate shape of its head and arms - but also in its habits. Despite this, the brain of the “straightened man” increased significantly in size, which affected his abilities: he could make tools intended for different purposes: catch and kill animals, butcher their carcasses, dig the ground, cut wooden sticks.

Thanks to the developed skills, a person was able to survive glacial period and move from the African continent to Java, the North and Europe. The “straightened” man began to hunt elephants and deer and use fire, which warmed him and protected him from predatory animals.

Due to the increasing complexity of human activity, homo sapiens - “reasonable man” or, as he is also called, Neanderthal - appeared 250 thousand years ago. Intelligent people first began to use the high caves in which bears spent the winter. Firstly, they easily obtained meat in this way, and secondly, they occupied caves in which they subsequently lived in large groups.

It was during this period that strong family relationships began to develop. They began to bury dead people with special rituals, surrounding the graves with stones and flowers. The skeletons found allowed scientists to determine that “intelligent” people tried to cure sick or injured relatives by sharing food with them and caring for them.

Rituals and rituals were also characteristic of Everyday life: Animal skulls arranged in a special order were found in the caves.

Since it is impossible to trace exactly how their “transformation” into modern people took place. In Latin, he is also called homo sapiens sapiens or “twice intelligent” man and his appearance is associated with stone age. A person of this species no longer had practically anything in common with a monkey - his arms became shorter, his forehead became higher, and a chin appeared.

Stone tools were replaced by bone ones. In general, in his use there were about 150 types of tools for different purposes. However, animal bones were used not only for making tools. People built houses from massive bones and wore animal teeth as decorations.

It is obvious that people's lives directly depended on animals: primitive communities followed the herds that migrated south. For hunting they used a spear and a bow, and for the construction of primitive dwellings they used not only bones, but also animal skins.