The transfer of a name from one object to another is explained either by the similarity or connection of these objects. There are the following types of transfer of the meaning of words: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche (as a special type of metonymic transfer), expansion or narrowing of meaning. Metaphor- transfer based on similarities between objects: #)tz forms"" 1 (neck bottles, eye of a needle, bow of a boat), b) twpmwe py (horse dose, pole = lanky person), c) p@«tsv©1у (golden curls, sallow face),shtttttmu wtttett ram = stubborn stupid

man, bitter smile, pure thoughts), 5) function (feather - initially, from a bird, then - metal; windshield wipers - in a car).

Metonymy- renaming objects based on their connection in space or time. Types of metonymic transfer: a^lyatayamyatshchv(drink a whole glass = the liquid in it; attentive audience = listeners), Shttshit ^ yshtltexhibition of bronze = objects from it; buy wool for a dress = fabric made of wool), Shch-schtshchvt, f-ftutyugt (jam = sweet jam made from fruits or berries; provide a written translation), ¥$SHSHNo.k >tschyashsh ®"d schschzschshshshstayatt (jaundice, blush, be ashamed, tremble = be afraid), d-uchyugerg^.izv- &rett&(cambric, guillotine, raglan, x-ray, revolver, olivier), fttjsh-F ( ShchSh boston =

fabric, Panama, tokaj = a type of wine named after a province in Hungary). Synecdoche - connection-based transfer: shetkLllryee

(A lonely sail is white, a detachment of one hundred sabers).

Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche are called tropes - a stylistic device based on the use of a word in a figurative meaning to achieve greater artistic expressiveness. The consequence of the figurative use of the word is expansion^ its meanings(paint -^1)_make beautiful, decorate-^ make red -> change color, paint) or him ^constriction)(beer is a drink in general - a drink made from barley malt with a small alcohol content), and development of abstract, abstract values("understand" meant

"take, catch") \ . .

Question 32. Connections of words by meaning (semantic fields, synonymous series, antonymic pairs). Words in a language are not in a disordered, chaotic state; they can be grouped based on different principles. The largest groupings of words by lexical-semantic fields. They are structured in a certain way: they have a center, a core, near and far peripheries. They consist of lexical units related to different parts of speech (verbs, nouns, adjectives), phrase combinations. But they all have some general semantic component on the basis of which they are included in a given lexical-semantic field. For example, LSP “EM0TSSH”,.yTsr0S1ranstV0>>” yTsvetit.p. Smaller associations - lexical-semantic groups- include lexical units related to one part of speech, but also having a certain common component (for example, 9 LSG "Verbs movement" and,.x"w). If we take into account functionalprinciple (i.e. by role in a combination or sentence), then the field can be lexical-functional. Grouping words by similarity shhhh

gives us ©ishnimiya^skie rows. Synonyms are words that differ in sound but are similar in meaning and can be used one instead of the other. There are three main types of synonyms.

1) Logical, or absolute synonyms - express the same concept (airplane - airplane, crocodile - alligator, linguistics - linguistics).

There are not very many of them, otherwise the language would be too overloaded with redundant vocabulary. 2) Semantic synonyms - close in meaning, but different in sound(blizzard - blizzard - blizzard - blizzard, elderly - old). 3) Contextual, or speech - words and expressions that can be used one instead of another only in a certain context(mouth - hat - crow, coward - hare). Synonyms allow us to convey the subtlest shades of our thoughts and feelings. As a rule, they are used in different styles of speech: look (neutral), contemplate (poetic),) hatch-drink (colloquial). Some of them are more frequently used, others less so. Sources of synonymy can be: I;) dialect, professional and slang words(house - hut (northern) - hut (southern), speed - tempo (music), fake - linden (thieves' jargon), 2) borrowings and tracings(alphabet - alphabet, abstract - abstract), 3) taboo - a ban on the use of certain words associated with religious or mystical ideas(brownie - owner, 4) didn't use names (pregnant - pregnant, crazy - crazy).

The grouping of lexical units based on the opposition of their meanings gives us antonymous pairs. Antonyms are words that sound different but express opposite meanings. They form pairs of words that are polar in their meaning, which coincide in their sphere of use and are used in opposition within the same statement (Commissars). Available only for words whose content contains qualitative features. For example, adjectives: old - young, healthy - sick, nouns: friend is enemy, night is day, truth is a lie. They can be formed from words with the same root using prefixes of opposite meanings or a negative particle-prefix not-:

enter - exit, surface - underwater, deep - shallow (shallow), friend - foe. Polysemantic words have several synonyms:

a quiet voice is a loud voice, quiet sadness is deep sadness, quiet driving is fast driving, quiet street is noisy street, quiet man is violent man. Linguistic antonyms are opposed by speech, contextual(human blood is not water).

Question 33. Connecting words by sound. Homonyms.

Paronyms. The problem of homonymy is closely related to the problem of polysemy, but it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish one from the other. Prof. Akhmanova proposed taking into account the relationship of the word with objective reality. If each of the meanings exists on its own, independently of each other, then they are independent names of different objects of the surrounding world and belong to homonym words. If one of the meanings acts as a derivative in relation to the other, the identity of the word is not violated, then we are dealing with different meanings of the same polysemantic word. The semantic independence of homonyms is supported morphologically and syntactically. Thus, many homonyms belong to different word-formation nests(marriage - marital - marriage - extramarital...; marriage - defective - defector - to reject). They also differ in syntactic properties.(leaving (= removing) from home - caring for the sick. The sources of homonymy are: 1) disintegration (splitting) of synonymy(shop (= bench) and shop (= small shop); 2) word formation(buy from “buy” - buy from “buy”); 3) historical change in the sound appearance of different words There are several RTSHSHSHSHSHMSHYA®* 0 ^

a| MSHSHCHNSCH YY m i™ actually homonyms- different in meaning, but identical in spelling and pronunciation in all forms (key - door, spring, violin, guess);

b) Homophones, or phonetic homonyms- different in meaning, spelling^ but identical in sound (ball - score, burn - burn, English/Iower(flower) -flour(flour); v- "-■ - \ - ? ;<Р< "1 "

V) homographs, or spelling homonyms- different in meaning, sound, but identical in spelling (dtpas - atlas, dear - dear);^^g-t^ut G^ ng- \I i -> i

G) homoforms, or morphological homonyms- identical in sound, spelling in one or more grammatical forms (my (- commands the adjective to the verb “to wash”) - my (= belonging to me.

Homonyms are adjacent to paronyms- words that are similar in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, which are mistakenly used one instead of the other (subscriber (- owner of a subscription) - subscription (= the right to use something for a period of time), parliamentarian (= member of parliament) - parliamentarian (= negotiator), hidden (= secret) - secretive (= taciturn).

Question 34. Phraseology.Goal (\ , . (("(/ j i /. If; (With;". )

Cl Stable combinations of words that are close or equal in meaning to one word are called phrase combinations. Being ready-made cliches, they are not created again, but are only reproduced in speech situations. Act as one member in a sentence(slap = mess around (predicate), carelessly = carelessly (adverbial), bull in a china shop = clumsy person)((subject, object), raven's wing = black (definition). Some of them turned into frozen sentences: Here's to the sky, grandma, and St. George's Day! Hold your pocket wider! By degree c DiYanio Based on the characteristics of the components, there are three main types of phrase combinations (classification proposed by Academician Zinogradov): ^ ^ 1 phraseological combinations - semi-free combinations in which only one word is limited; but in its uselook down / look down, eyes, nose / face);T ^" ^^U M4^2 phraseological unities - stable combinations in which the value of the whole can be derived from the values ​​of its constituent members(to kill without a knife, to take the bull by the horns, blood with mo- lock, -,/-,

wash your hands); 3 phrases geological adhesions, or idioms - maximally lexicalized figures of speech, the meanings of which have no connection with the meanings of their members The boundaries between types of phrase combinations are fluid: with increasing lexicalization, the combination increasingly turns into an idiom.

Phraseology - 1) a branch of linguistics that studies the phraseological composition of a language in its current state and historical development, 2) a set of phraseological units of a given language. ■Phraseology of any language has a distinct national specificity. Sometimes you can find similar phraseological units (There isBysmoke without fire.- There is no smoke without fire.). (But more often than not, a literal translation is impossible You" can t make an without omelet breakingeggs

.

Metaphor-You can’t even pull a fish out of a pond without difficulty).

Metaphor as a type of figurative meaning

- this is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on similarity.

Similarity can be external and internal.

Type of metaphor:

similarity of shape (draw a circle - a lifebuoy);

similarity in appearance (black horse - gymnastic horse);

the similarity of the impression made (sweet grapes - sweet dream);

similarity of location (leather sole - the sole of the mountain, whitewash the ceiling - three in Russian - its ceiling);

similarity in the structure of assessments (light portfolio - easy text, the son has outgrown his father, has become very tall - outgrowing his mentor);

similarity in the way of presenting actions (grasp the trunk of a tree with your hands - she was overcome with joy, the piles support the bridge - support Ivanov’s candidacy);

similarity of functions (mercury barometer - barometer of public opinion). Ways to form a metaphor Metaphorical transfer may be based on some real similarity between objects, another type of similarity is based on

historically or nationally established ideas

(for example, a crow is a bungler).

The metaphor is usually national in nature. This is one of its features.

Words of the same type in direct meaning do not necessarily give the same figurative meanings in different languages ​​(a cow - in Russian is a fat woman, in German - a tastelessly dressed woman; a fox in Russian is a cunning person, in German - a first-year student).

In some cases, metaphor arises due to the exclusion of individual semes from the meaning of words, i.e. simplifying the meaning. For example, to fly is to move quickly through the air. I flew to this meeting (the "travel" component was excluded).

Types of Metaphors I. By features of use, functions.

This metaphor is dry and has lost its imagery. Dictionaries, as a rule, do not mark this meaning as figurative, metaphorical.

For example, a door handle, a teapot spout, the white of an eye, a door peephole.

There is imagery in the word, it lies in the very fact of transferring the name from one object to another.

2. Figurative metaphor

Contains a hidden comparison and has a characterizing property.

For example, a star (celebrity), a sharp mind.

A figurative metaphor arises as a result of a person’s comprehension of objects in the real world.

3. Cognitive metaphor

Mental reflection of a real or attributed commonality of properties between compared concepts.

Forms the abstract meaning of a word.

For example, a handful of people (small number), spinning (constantly in thoughts).

II. By role in language and speech.

1. General language (usual).

Reflects the social image and is systematic in use. It is reproducible and anonymous, fixed in dictionaries.

2. Individual (artistic).

For example:

Among the midday languor

Turquoise covered with cotton wool.

Giving birth to the sun, the lake languished.

Metaphor. Types of metaphor (nominative, cognitive, figurative). Functions of metaphor in speech. Use of metaphor in the media

One of the essential functions of figuratively used words is the nominative function, otherwise nominative (Latin nominatio - “naming, naming”). This task is performed by dry metaphors: chanterelles (a type of mushroom), a beard (part of a key), an umbrella (a type of inflorescence), a trunk (part of a weapon), a caterpillar (a chain put on wheels), a zipper (a type of fastener or a type of telegram), a comb ( a growth on the head of birds or a device, a tool), facial (in the phrase “the front side of the material”); Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - “transfer”) is the transfer of a name by similarity, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which is based on similarity. A description of the process of discovering similarities between objects and then the appearance of a metaphor due to the similarity can be found in different authors. So, in V. Soloukhin’s story “Vladimir Country Roads” we read: “And here is also a bell, but very strange. It is completely round and looks more like a ready-made berry. And it also looks like a tiny porcelain lampshade, but so delicate and fragile, that it is hardly possible to make it with human hands. There will be something for both children and black grouse to eat. After all, in place of the lampshade, a juicy, black blueberry with a blue coating on the skin will ripen.” The writer first pointed out the similarity of the blueberry flower with a lampshade in shape (calling it a bell and specifying that it is completely round; in addition, along the edges it has small, frequent teeth, similar to the fringe of a lampshade; this last feature is not named, but the reader assumes it) , and now, after our imagination is directed along the path desired by the author, an idea of ​​the nature of the similarity is directly or indirectly given, the writer has already used the metaphor of a lampshade (in the last phrase of the above passage).

The similarity between objects (phenomena), on the basis of which it becomes possible to call another “name” of one object, can be very diverse. Objects can be similar a) in shape (as a blueberry flower is similar to a lampshade); b) location; c) color; d) size (quantity, volume, length, etc.); e) degree of density, permeability; f) degree of mobility, reaction speed; g) sound; h) degree of value; i) function, role; j) the nature of the impression made on our senses, etc. Below are metaphors that reflect these types of similarities:

a) (shapes) sausage ring, eyebrow arches, bird (mountain) crest, road ribbon, church onions, burst funnel, gun barrel, cheese head, pot-bellied teapot, sharp cheekbones, humpbacked roofs;

b) (locations) the head (tail) of a comet, trains, the sole (crown) of a mountain, the arms of a lever, a newspaper basement, a chain of lakes, the wing of a building;

c) (colors) copper hair, coral lips, wheat mustache, chocolate tan, collect foxes, bottle (emerald) eyes, sandy shirt, pale sky, golden foliage;

d) (size, quantity) a stream (ocean) of tears, not a drop of talent, a mountain of things, a sea of ​​heads, a cloud of mosquitoes, dwarf trees, a tower (about an overly tall person), a baby (about a small child);

e) (degrees of density) cast iron palms, iron muscles, jelly of roads, wall of rain, muslin of fog, marshmallow (a type of candy);

f) (degrees of mobility) block of wood, block (about a clumsy, slow person), spinning top, dragonfly (about an active child, about a restless person), quick mind, clouds are running (rushing), the train is barely crawling;

g) (character of sound) the rain is drumming, the screech of a saw, the wind howled, the howl of the wind, cackled (neighed) with pleasure, a creaky voice, the masts groan (sing), the whisper of leaves;

h) (degrees of value) golden words, the color of society, the salt of conversation, the highlight of the program, the pearl of creations, the pearl of poetry, zero, booger (about an insignificant, insignificant person);

i) (functions) chains of slavery, marriage shackles, web of lies, fetter someone’s actions, put a bridle on someone, extinguish a quarrel, torch of knowledge, artificial satellite, key of the problem;

j) (impressions produced by an abstract object or the properties of an object, face) icy gaze, warm meeting, hot love, black betrayal, sour expression, sweet speeches, ice (armor) of indifference, rat (contemptuous characteristic of a person), break through the wall of misunderstanding.

Metaphors differ not only in the nature of similarity (as discussed above), but also in the degree of prevalence and imagery (the latter property, imagery, is closely related to the degree of prevalence and use of the metaphor). From this point of view, the following groups of metaphors can be distinguished:

general language (commonly used) dry;

commonly used figurative;

general poetic figurative;

general newspaper figurative (usually);

General linguistic dry metaphors are metaphors-names, the imagery of which is not felt at all: “the front side of matter”, “the train left (came)”, “clock hands”, “airplane (mill) wing”, “geographical belt”, “eye of the needle” ", "mushroom (nail) cap", "machine apron", "fog is setting", "tractor caterpillars", "collect chanterelles", "inform with lightning", "sew in a zipper", "the sun rises (set)", "clean bottles with a brush", etc.*

In explanatory dictionaries, these unimaginative metaphors are listed under the numbers 2, 3, 4, etc. without litter nepen. (figurative), which indicates that these metaphors are not felt as figurative, like picture symbols.

Commonly used (or common language) figurative metaphors are not direct, but allegorical, pictorial designations of objects, phenomena, signs, actions; these are characteristic words that are widely used in both written and oral speech. For example, if the direct, generally accepted, “official”, so to speak, names for a large amount of something are the words “many”, “many”, then its pictorial, figurative designations are figurative metaphors sea, stream, stream (“sea of ​​lights”, “ stream, streams of tears"), forest ("forest of hands"), cloud ("cloud of mosquitoes"), mountain ("mountain of things"), ocean ("ocean of sounds"), etc. More examples of commonly used figurative metaphors: velvet (“velvet cheeks”), coo (meaning “to have a tender conversation together”), pearl (“pearl of poetry”), star (“screen stars”, “hockey stars”), beast (about cruel person), healthy (“healthy idea”), stony (“heart of stone”), digest (“I haven’t digested this book yet”), nag (meaning “scold”)*, etc.

Such commonly used figurative metaphors are given in explanatory dictionaries under the numbers 2, 3, 4, etc. or with the sign // to any meaning, accompanied by the mark transfer., the presence of which indicates the perceived portability of this meaning, the figurativeness of the metaphor.

General poetic figurative metaphors differ from those just given in that they are more characteristic of artistic speech (poetic and prosaic). For example: spring (meaning “youth”): “Where, where have you gone, the golden days of my spring?” (P.); “And I, like the spring of humanity, born in labor and in battle, sing my fatherland, my republic!” (Lighthouse.); doze (in the meaning of “to be motionless” or “not to appear, to remain inactive”): “The sensitive reed is dozing” (I. Nik.);

General newspaper metaphors are metaphors that are actively used in the language of print (as well as in the language of radio and television broadcasts) and, as a rule, are unusual neither in ordinary everyday speech nor in the language of fiction. These include:

start, start (“a new technique starts”, “at the start of the year”), finish, finish (“the song festival has finished”, “at the finish of the year”),

Finally, individual metaphors are unusual figurative uses of the words of a particular author (which is why they are also called author’s), which have not become a national or general literary (or general newspaper) property.

11. Metonymy. Types of metonymy. The use of metonymy in speech and in the media. Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - “renaming”) is the transfer of a name by contiguity, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which arose due to such a transfer. In contrast to metaphorical transfer, which necessarily presupposes the similarity of objects, actions, properties, metonymy is based on juxtaposition, contiguity of objects, concepts, actions, which are in no way similar to each other. For example, such different “subjects” as an industrial enterprise and the employees of this enterprise can be called by the same word plant (cf.: “a new plant is being built” and “the plant has fulfilled the plan”); in one word we refer to the country, state and government of the country, state (cf.: “the people of France” and “France has concluded a treaty”), etc.

Depending on the specific contiguity between objects (concepts) and actions, metonymy is distinguished between spatial, temporal and logical*.

Spatial metonymy is based on the spatial, physical juxtaposition of objects and phenomena. The most common case of spatial metonymy is the transfer of the name of a room (part of a room), institution, etc. on people living, working, etc. in this room, in this enterprise. Compare, for example, “multi-storey building”, “spacious hut”, “huge workshop”, “cramped editorial office”, “student dormitory”, etc., where the words house, hut, workshop, editorial office, dormitory are used in their literal meaning for naming a premises, an enterprise, and “the whole house went out for a cleanup day”, “the huts were sleeping”, “the workshop joined the competition”, “

With temporal metonymy, objects and phenomena are adjacent, “in touch” in the time of their existence, “appearance”.

Such metonymy is the transfer of the name of an action (expressed by a noun) to the result - to what arises in the process of action. For example: “publishing a book” (action) – “luxurious, gift edition” (result of action); “it was difficult for the artist to depict details” (action) – “images of animals are carved on the rock” (i.e. drawings, and therefore the result of the action); similar metonymic figurative meanings, which appeared on the basis of temporal contiguity, also have the words embroidery (“dress with embroidery”),

Logical metonymy is also very common. Logical metonymy includes:

a) transferring the name of the vessel, container to the volume of what is contained in the vessel, container. Wed. “break a cup, plate, glass, jug”, “lose a spoon”, “smoke a pan”, “tie a bag”, etc., where the words cup, plate, glass, jug, spoon, pan, bag are used in their literal meaning as the names of the container, and “try a spoonful of jam”, b) transferring the name of a substance, material to a product made from it: “porcelain exhibition”, “won gold, bronze” (i.e. gold, bronze medals), “collect ceramics”, “hand over the necessary papers” (i.e. documents), “break glass”, “paint watercolors”, “Levitan’s canvas” (“Surikov’s canvas”), “walk in nylon, in furs”, etc.;

d) transferring the name of the action to the substance (object) or to the people with the help of which this action is carried out. For example: putty, impregnation (a substance used to putty or impregnate something), suspension, clamp (device for hanging, clamping something), protection,

e) transferring the name of the action to the place where it occurs. For example: entrance, exit, detour, stop, transition, turn, passage, crossing (place of entry, exit, detour, stop, transition, turn, passage, crossing, i.e. the place where these actions are performed);

f) transferring the name of a property, quality to something or something that or who discovers has this property, quality. Compare: “tactlessness, rudeness of words”, “stupidity of a person”, “mediocrity of the project”, “tactlessness of behavior”, “caustic remarks

g) transferring the name of a geographical point or locality to what is produced in them, cf. Tsinandali, Saperavi, Havana, Gzhel, etc.

Metonymic transfer of names is also characteristic of verbs. It can be based on the contiguity of objects (as in the two previous cases). Compare: “knock out the carpet” (the carpet absorbs dust, which is knocked out), “pour out the statue” (they pour out the metal from which the statue is made); other examples: “boil laundry”, “forge a sword (nails)”, “string a necklace” (from beads, shells, etc.), “sweep a snowdrift”, etc. Metonymic meaning can also arise due to the contiguity of actions. For example: “the store opens (=trade begins) at 8 o’clock” (the opening of the doors serves as a signal for the store to start operating).

Like metaphors, metonymies vary in their degree of prevalence and expressiveness. From this point of view, among metonymies one can distinguish general linguistic inexpressive, general poetic (general literary) expressive, general newspaper expressive (as a rule) and individual (author's) expressive.

Common linguistic metonymies are casting, silver, porcelain, crystal (in the meaning of “product”), work (what is made), putty, impregnation (substance), protection, attack, plant, factory, shift (when these words are used to name people), entry, exit, crossing, crossing, turning, etc. (meaning place of action), fox, mink, hare, squirrel, etc. (as a sign, product) and much more*. Like general linguistic metaphors, metonymies themselves are absolutely inexpressive and are sometimes not perceived as figurative meanings.

Such metonymies are listed in explanatory dictionaries under the numbers 2, 3, etc. or are given after the sign // in any meaning of the word without the mark trans.

General poetic (general literary) expressive metonymies are azure (about a cloudless blue sky): “The last cloud of a scattered storm! Alone you rush across the clear azure” (P.);

General newspaper metonymies include words such as white (cf. "white strada", "white Olympics"), fast ("fast track", "fast water", "fast seconds", etc.), green ("green patrol ", "green harvest"), golden (cf. "golden jump", "golden flight", "golden blade", where golden - “one that is valued with a gold medal”, or “one with the help of which a gold medal is won” ) etc.

12. Synecdoche. The use of synecdoche in speech and in the media. Synecdoche (Greek synekdoche) is the transfer of the name of a part of an object to the entire object or, conversely, the transfer of the name of a whole to a part of this whole, as well as the meaning itself that arose on the basis of such a transfer. For a long time now we have been using such synecdoches as face, mouth, hand, meaning a person (cf. “there are five mouths in the family”, “the main character”, “he has a hand there” (naming the whole - a person) after a part), dining room , front, room, apartment, etc., when by dining room, front, room, apartment we mean the “floor” (or walls) of the dining room (room, apartment), etc., i.e. we denote by the name of the whole its part. (cf.: “the dining room is decorated with oak panels”, “the apartment is wallpapered”, “the room is newly painted”, etc.). More examples of both types of synecdoche: head (about a person of great intelligence): “Brian is the head” ( I. and P.), kopek (meaning “money”): “... better behave in such a way that you will be treated, and most of all, take care and save a penny, this thing is the most reliable in the world” (Gog.); (“an object designated by some number”): “We won’t have to go in number fourteen!” he says. “We were very late” (Ch.); the luminary (“sun”): “But a strange stream flowed from the sun,” and, forgetting sedateness, I sit gradually talking with the luminary" (Mayak.), etc.*

Uses such as “Love the book”, “Seller and buyer, be mutually polite”, “The tiger is a member of the cat family”, “Exhibition of a revolutionary poster”, etc. should not be classified as lexical synecdoche. In lexical synecdoche (say, mouth in the meaning of “person”) one class of objects (“person”) is designated by the “name” of a completely different class of objects (“mouth”). And book, seller, buyer, tiger, poster in the examples given above are singular forms used in the meaning of plural forms to name the same objects. This, if we use the term “synecdoche,” grammatical synecdoche, is a fundamentally different phenomenon compared to lexical synecdoche.

Like metaphor and metonymy, synecdoche can be common (dry and expressive) and individual. The words mouth, face, hand, forehead, when they serve to designate a person, are general linguistic, commonly used synecdoches, while forehead and mouth are synecdoches that have retained expressiveness. The synecdoche beard (meaning “bearded man”; mainly in circulation) is widespread. But the mustache is an individual synecdoche. It is found, for example, in V. Kaverin’s novel “Two Captains” (the students of the geography teacher called Usami in this novel). Generally poetic is the synecdoche of sound in the meaning of “word”, cf.: “Neither the sound of a Russian, nor a Russian face” (Mushroom); “Moscow... how much in this sound / For the Russian heart has merged!” (P.). Skirt (cf. “run after every skirt”) is a commonly used synecdoche. And the names of many other types of clothing used to designate a person (in such clothing) are perceived as individual synecdoches. Compare, for example: “Ah! – the wolf’s fur coat spoke reproachfully” (Turg.); “So, so...” mutters duckweed [from “cassock”], moving his hand over his eyes” (Ch.); “What an important, fatal role the receding straw hat plays in her life” (Ch.); “I’ll tell you frankly,” Panama answered. “Don’t put your finger in Snowden’s mouth” (I. and P.); “The suspicious trousers were already far away” (I. and P.). Many synecdoches that arise in colloquial speech are contextual, non-linguistic uses. For example: “Don’t you see, I’m talking to a person (i.e. “the right person”).” Such contextual synecdoche, typical of ordinary colloquial speech, is reflected in the literature. For example: “[Klavdia Vasilyevna:] Introduce me, Oleg. [Oleg:] With a braid - Vera, with eyes - Fira" (Rose). (In Rozova’s play, Vera is a girl with a thick braid, Fira has big beautiful eyes).

The term "metonymy" comes from the Greek word meaning "renaming." This is a trope that represents the transfer of meaning by contiguity - occasional or regular - of the name of a certain class of objects, or some individual of them, to an object or another class associated with it by involvement in a specific situation or contiguity.

What names can be transferred

The basis of metonymy are spatial, conceptual, eventual, logical and syntagmatic relations between certain categories related to reality and its reflection in human consciousness, enshrined in the specific meanings of words - between persons, objects, actions, phenomena, processes, events, social institutions, time, place, etc.

The name can be transferred:

1) from the container to the volume of the contents or to the contents themselves, for example: “glass” - “a measure of loose and liquid masses”, “drinking vessel”;

2) from the material to products made from it: “copper” - “copper money” and “metal”;

3) from a populated area, a place to an event associated with it or a set of residents inhabiting it: “The whole village laughed at him”, “road” - “trip”, “path laid out for movement”, “travel time”;

3) from a certain action to its result, an object involved in the action (tool, object, subject) or place: “stop” is both the place where the vehicle stops and a certain action, “whistle” is a device for whistling and the act of whistling itself;

5) from the form of expression of certain content or its specific, material embodiment to the content as a whole: “an interesting book” is related to the content, and a “thick book” is related to the subject;

6) transfer of meaning by contiguity from science, a branch of knowledge to its subject and vice versa: “grammar” is both “the structure of language” and “a branch of linguistics”;

7) from an event, a social event to its participants: “The conference will be held in June” and “The conference has agreed on an important decision”;

8) from an institution, social organization to a premises, the totality of its employees: “the factory is on strike” and “to repair the factory”;

9) from part to whole and vice versa: “pear” - “fruit” and “tree” (transferring a name from part to whole is called synecdoche - this is a special case of metonymy);

10) from a certain emotional state to the reason that caused it: “horror” - “terrible event” and “fear”;

Regular metonymy

Metonymy, reflecting the interaction of concepts, categories and/or objects, becomes regular when it creates semantic models of word-formation types and polysemantic words, often combining different types of meanings: event, attribute, subject (concrete and abstract). For example, action names are used regularly to designate some resulting object ("composition", "work", "story", "solution", "construction").

Suffix polysemy

If metonymic transfer is regularly carried out within a word-formation type, its consequence may be polysemy of the suffix rather than the stem (compare, for example, the meaning of such verbal suffixes as -enie, -anie). The association of certain objects by contiguity, as well as by the logical proximity of concepts, turns into a connectedness of meanings. Metonymy of this kind serves certain purposes - nominative, and also contributes to the development of lexical language means.

What gives rise to metonymy

This trope is generated by the mechanisms of various syntagmatic transformations. A metonymy that regularly arises on the basis of a sentence or phrase, resulting from the so-called elliptical abbreviation of the text, usually retains some degree of its limitation by the conditions of its use, without creating a contextually independent new meaning, for example: “There are two Van Goghs in the museum” (in the meaning of “two but You can’t say, “One Van Gogh shows a young woman.”

Connection with context

The strongest connection with the context is the following metonymy (for examples in Russian, see below), in which the designation of a certain situation, based on a certain predicate, is reduced to only a component of the meaning of the object: “What’s wrong with you?” - “Heart (head, teeth, throat) " - meaning "heart pain (head, teeth, throat). This usage is limited to specific semantic and syntactic contexts. Thus, some figurative meaning (examples - “heart”, “head”) cannot be combined with procedural verbs and adjectives that determine the course of the disease and the nature of the pain. We cannot say “strong (aching, sharp) heart” or “heart has worsened (aggravated, intensified).” In this case, the transfer of meaning by contiguity does not create a semantic content of the word independent of the context. It serves as a means of revealing semantic variants of its use. The figurative meaning, examples of which were indicated above, is closely related to the context.

How is metonymy used?

Metonymy (synecdoche most often) is used as a device for some situational nomination of an object by its external individualizing detail. Let us illustrate our idea. Let's take sentences with metonymy such as: “Hey, beard!”, “The hat is reading a newspaper.” This use is similar to its derivatives denoting belonging - and nouns, cf. "beard" and "bearded man", "bearded". This kind of metonymy (examples in the Russian language - Little Red Riding Hood, Dwarf Nose, etc.) often serves as a means of creating nicknames.

Social group designation

If a detail called metonymy is typical for many individuals, then it can take root in the language and as a designation of a certain social group, for example, the word “bast shoe” can indicate the peasants of Russia in the pre-revolutionary period. But such metonymy lacks denotative (semantic) stability. In various historical contexts, the name "beard" was used to designate wise men, peasants, boyars, elders, as well as a certain group of young people. in the Russian language which we have just given is very common.

Syntactic positions of metonymy

The use of this trope (synecdoche, first of all) primarily to designate the subject of speech combines it with the syntactic positions of the subject, address and complements. As a predicate, situational transfer of meaning by contiguity is uncommon, since it does not perform any characterizing function. If metonymy is used in a predicate, it is transformed into a metaphor, for example, “hat” is a “bungler,” “galosh” is “a wreck, a decrepit person.” The use of names in the sense of partativity in a predicate, usually serving the purpose of aspecting the subject, is not considered in most cases as transfer by contiguity. Let us illustrate our idea. Let's take this example: “He had a rebellious mind” - the characteristic refers to a specific aspect of the personality, more precisely, his intellectual make-up.

Synecdoche is also not used in any existential sentences or their equivalents that introduce the subject into the narrative world. For example, we cannot start a story with words such as: Once upon a time there was (one, some) little red riding hood." This use is perceived not as a designation of a person, but as a personification of an object.

Metaphor(from the Greek metaphora - transfer) - this is the transfer of a name based on the similarity of characteristics or functions . For example, emerald grass, wave crest, time flies, die Schlange– snake and queue, der Pfau- peacock and proud man (German). Transfers from the names of parts of the human body to objects are frequent. For example, table leg, bottleneck, the head– head and screw head, nail head, the neck– neck, bottle neck (English), das Bein– leg and chair leg (German).

Metonymy(from the Greek metōnymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name by contiguity, based on real connections between objects. Metonymy includes: A) transfer based on the spatial contiguity of objects ( school– educational institution and school- a group of people, the town - the city and the town - the population of the city (English)); B) transfer based on the contiguity of the object and the material from which it is made (“Not that on silver – ate on gold» A.S. Griboyedov); C) based on the logical and associative connection between the author and his work (“ Read willingly Apuleius, A I haven't read Cicero» A.S. Pushkin), etc. A type of metonymy is with inecdoche(from the Greek synekdochē - co-implication) - transfer of the name based on a quantitative relationship: from the whole to the part (“All flags will come to visit us” A.S. Pushkin).

Exercises

1. According to the Dictionary of Modern Russian Language, ed. S.I. Ozhegova (any publication) find the secondary meanings of the words:

a) window, wall, ceiling; b) take, drive, catch, call; c) left, sour, soft, green; d) moth, salt, spicy, carry. Comparing with the primary meanings, highlight direct and figurative, free and bound meanings.

2. What is the essence of metaphorical transfer? Show this with an example of words wing, core, apple, smoke, shell . Complete this series with your own examples.

3. Give 6-7 examples of transfers of meaning: a) from the names of parts of the human body to physical objects, b) from the names of spatial concepts to temporal ones, c) from the designation of tactile and taste properties to auditory and visual ones.

4. Identify the type of figurative meaning in the following examples.

Cold - “indifferent, restrained”, siren - “alarm signal”, hat - “newspaper headline”, digest - “learn”, motor - “car, taxi”, stilettos - “shoes with thin high heels”, bloom - “good” look”, evaporate – “disappear, leave”, rubber – “tires”, zebra – “pedestrian crossing”, crusts – “diploma, certificate”, window – “free time between classes”, corkscrew – “aerobatics”, flashlight - "black eye".

5. Find different meanings of adjectives fresh, new, small . Show how new meanings developed. Identify the differences in secondary value types.

6. What types of figurative meanings are represented in the following words in modern English?

Town 1) city, 2) population of the city;

Table 1) table, 2) food, 3) table, schedule, 4) company at the table;

Eye 1) eye, 2) vision, 3) glance, 4) ear, loop;

Mirror 1) mirror, 2) display;

Pen 1) feather, 2) pen with a feather, 3) writer, 4) literary work;

Goose 1) goose, 2) simpleton;

Brain 1) brain, 2) brains (food), 3) mind, 4) electronic computer.

7. Determine the meanings of the words in the following phrases. Determine where words are used in figurative meanings, indicate the type of transfer.

a) Bright sun - bright colors - bright talent, rye grain - grain of truth, porcelain dishes - porcelain and earthenware department, evil intent - evil melancholy, dog's tail - train tail, bronze coin - bronze tan, break a glass - drink a glass of water , there is a dictation - take the dictation, collect tea - drink tea.

b) Steep cliff - steep disposition - steep swearing, Levitan's paintings - love Levitan, bright audience - the audience was worried, translation of a book - make a translation, bear paws - spruce paws, mental work - printed works, snow is melting - sounds are melting in the distance.

8. What type of name transfer is illustrated by the following examples?

Russian: Boston, Madera, Muscovite (car), Ford, Plyushkin, Othello, Don Juan, cambric, Caesar, Narzan, gold (money), plum (fruit), sole (mountains), golden (good), golden (yellow), pickle (as a product).

English: winchester (hunting rifle), china (porcelain), havana (cigar), pullman (carriage), hooligan (from the criminal's surname), mauser (gun), heart (love), breast (conscience), aster (aster), town ( population of the city), sardins (from Sardinia).

9. Use the following words in contexts so that they have a literal and figurative, metonymic meaning.

Banality, meanness, borrowing, listing, embroidery, rinsing, upholstery, lighting, passage, bite, stop, silk, class, rabbit, crystal, London.

10. In what cases is an adjective heavy (heavy) can have meanings in English abundant, strong, stormy, steep, strong, boring, sleepy, gloomy ? Select primary and secondary, free and bound values.

11. Give 3-4 German adjectives with spatial meaning (for example, gerade - straight). Find out what figurative meanings they have.

12. Using dictionaries, find out the different meanings of German words grün, die Feder, gehen, die Saat and the corresponding Russians. What values ​​can be considered basic? How did figurative meanings develop? Are these paths the same in Russian and German?

13. Give 5-6 meanings of the word head . Check the correctness of the given values ​​in the dictionary. Highlight terminological and phraseologically related meanings.

14. How do zoosemic transfers coincide and differ in English, French and Russian?

English: bulldog (bulldog) – “stubborn”, gudgeon (minnow) – “simpleton”, fox (fox) – “cunning”, bear (bear) – “clumsy”, pig (pig) – “glutton”, monkey (monkey) – “crooked”, serpent (snake) – “evil”, cat (cat) – “evil woman”, mole (mole) – “short-sighted”, peacock (peacock) – “vain”, pigeon (dove) – “stupid”, puppy (puppy) – “baby sucker”.

French: aigle (eagle) – “hero”, lion (lion) – “brave”, dindon (turkey) – “foolish”, mouton (ram) – “informer”, pigeon (dove) – “simp”, renard (fox) – “cunning”, coq (rooster) – “important person”, crapaud (toad) – “ugly”.

Homonyms

Homonymy(from the Greek homōnymia - same name) is a sound or graphic coincidence of words of different meanings. For example, key- what is used to open locks, and key- forest stream, match– marriage (matrimony) and match- match (English), la livre– pound and le livre– book (French), der Bauer- peasant and der Bauer– cell (German).

As a linguistic phenomenon, homonymy is opposed to polysemy.

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Polysemy, or polysemy, is typical for the overwhelming majority of words in the language. In most cases, one word coexists with several stable meanings, forming semantic variants of this word. And potentially any or almost any word is capable of acquiring new meanings when people using the language have a need to name with its help a new phenomenon for them that does not yet have a designation in the corresponding language.

Studying figurative meanings in the common language and the figurative use of words in works of fiction, philologists have identified a number of types of transfer of names. The two most important of these types are metaphor and metonymy.

WITH metaphor(from other Greek “transfer”) we are dealing with where the transfer of a name from one object to another is carried out on the basis of the similarity of certain features - symbols of metaphor. The similarity underlying metaphorical transfer can be “internal,” i.e., a similarity not of external characteristics, but of a feeling, impression, or assessment. This is how they talk about a warm meeting, about hot love or, on the contrary, about a cold reception, about a dry answer, about a sour face and a bitter reproach. This is a syncretic metaphor. With a metaphorical transfer of meaning, the thing changes, but the concept does not change entirely: with all metaphorical changes, some sign of the original concept remains. Metaphors can be obtained from different cases of similarity. These are, for example, metaphorical terms, where the transfer is based on the similarity of the form with the names of animals: bulls at the bridge, frog (gasoline pump in a car), front sight on the barrel of a gun, winch in the port, duck (medical vessel), tractor caterpillar, dog at the gun; or from the names of body parts: neck, neck, arm, leg, shoulder, fist, head, back.

Metonymy- such a transfer of name, which is carried out not on the basis of the similarity of external or internal characteristics of the old thing and the new one, but on the basis of contiguity, i.e. the contact of things in space or time. Typical cases of metonymies are associated with the following relationships:

a) One within the other: the words class, audience as names of premises and as a designation of students sitting in these premises.

b) One on top of the other: table – “furniture” and table – “food”.

c) One under the other: table - “furniture” got its name from table - “something laid out”.

d) One through the other: French jalousie - blinds - “window curtains made of wooden plates” from jalousie - “jealousy” (one who peeked through the window through the folding curtain).

e) One after the other or as a result of the other, process-result; These are all verbal nouns like: “the admission of students continued,” “the typing of the book took three months.”

f) Material-product: copper, silver, gold as the names of metals and as the names of coins made from them.

g) Place - product: sherry, Madeira, Bordeaux, Abrau-Durso, Curacao - as names of wines and as geographical points

h) Name - product: Colt, Mauser, Browning, Nagant, Winchester - as the names of weapons and the names of their manufacturers.

A type of metonymy is synecdoche(from other Greek “co-impliation, expression by hint”) - transfer of a name from a part to a whole, for example from an item of clothing to a person (he ran after every skirt), or from a whole class of objects or phenomena to one of the subclasses (the so-called “narrowing of meaning”, for example machine in the meaning of “car”). As in the case of metonymy, synecdoche is based on contiguity, but the significant difference is the quantitative sign of the relationship between what the name is transferred from and what the name is transferred to; one member of such a relationship will always be larger, wider, more general, the other – smaller, narrower, more specific.