The Neurobotics company, founded in February 2004, began its activities with the development and production of equipment for research in the field of neuroscience - neurophysiology and human psychophysiology, as well as equipment for behavioral and physiological experiments on animals. The company has been working on brain-computer interfaces since 2006.

Since 2007, Neurobotics has been supplying imported equipment from foreign manufacturers specializing in neurophysiology, psychology, animal physiology (Brain Products GmbH, ADInstruments, Plexon, Noldus, Cambridge Cognition, Stoelting, WPI, MazeEngineering, Warner Instruments and until 2018 SensoMotoric Instruments) .

The company has completed several R&D projects for the FSB, FSO, MO, Investigative Committee, FPI, MPT. The subject areas of the projects are psychophysiology, engineering ergonomics, brain-computer interface.

Since August 2011, Neurobotics has invested most of its own profits in anthropomorphic robotics and robot biocontrol systems based on EEG and EMG. In 2015, Neurobotics invested part of its profits in its own projects to replace imports of several popular products for research in the field of physiology and animal behavior; they are presented on the website - these are the Minotaur, Shelter, Systola, Phlogiston systems, and the Teremok restrainer. Neurobotics company has its own production workshop. As a result of such import substitution, equipment 4-10 times cheaper than imported analogues appeared on the Russian market. At the same time technical specifications equipment often exceeds the characteristics of their imported analogues due to the use of a new component base and taking into account the specifications of several analogous products.

From October 2014 to October 2015, the Neurobotics company, under a state contract with TsNIIMash (Customer - Roscosmos), developed a prototype of the anthropomorphic Andronaut robot to perform intra-vehicle operations in space, including providing psychological and information support to astronauts.

In the first half of 2016, Neurobotics supplied equipment for neurocontrol lessons (Neurobelt-8 neuroheadsets), M-Bot robots and Parrot quadcopters to 5 Russian schools (Dolgoprudny, Khanty-Mansiysk, Naberezhnye Chelny, Kaliningrad, Korolev) and to the Center " Sirius" (Sochi). This is the equipment used for the World Skills competition in May 2016.

On October 8, 2016, in Zurich, the Neurobotics team took part in the first international competition of bionic athletes Cybathlon-2016 in the BCI and EXO disciplines. An exoskeleton was developed for the EXO discipline, and the Neurobelt-8 neuroheadset was used for the BCI discipline. Neurobotics was the only participant representing Russia in these disciplines.

Clients of the Neurobotics company are Lomonosov Moscow State University, Kant Baltic Federal University, St. Petersburg State University, Northern Federal University, Southern Federal University, Universities of Tomsk, Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, Samara, Saratov, Volgograd, Kaluga, research institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, FMBA, Moscow Region, OKB Sukhoi, VTB-24 bank, Yandex companies, IPSOS, TNS-Global, clients from Moldova, Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan and many others.

Human anatomy and physiology are biological sciences that are closely interconnected, the object of study of which is the human body. Historically, they were formed earlier than other sciences studying human biology, and subsequently gave rise to other biological sciences. The separation of these sciences from general anatomy and physiology is due to the fact that man as a biological species is unique and differs from animals in a number of anatomical characteristics, complex higher nervous activity and his social essence.

Physiology owes its emergence to the needs of medicine, as well as to the desire of man to know himself, the essence and manifestations of life at various levels of its organization.

Human anatomy (from the Greek anatome - dissection) is a science that studies the shape, external and internal structure of the human body.

Human physiology (from the Greek physis - nature, logos - science) studies the vital processes and patterns of functioning of the human body, its individual systems, organs, tissues and cells. Human anatomy and physiology studies the structural features and vital functions of the body in the process of individual development. Human anatomy and physiology are inseparable from medicine; they serve as the foundation for it. Medicine relies on knowledge of human anatomy and physiology to solve problems related to the preservation of human health and performance, its treatment and restoration of health.

Specialty training program

Levels of organization of a living organism. Molecular mechanisms of physiological processes. Enzymes, biologically active substances. Cytophysiology. Functions of the main body systems. Perception, processing and transmission of information. Regulation of functions and homeostasis systems. Immunity. Patterns of integrative brain activity. Mechanisms of memory. Emotions and motivations. Learning, speech, thinking. Physiology of behavior: physiological basis of goal-directed behavior, forms of behavior, functional state and behavior, individual differences. Communicative behavior. Ecological physiology: interaction between the organism and the environment. Climatogeographical and social environmental factors. Adaptation of the body to different conditions. Stress and adaptation, age and adaptation.

Both human anatomy and physiology are generally divided into a number of areas:

• Normal anatomy and normal physiology studies the structure and functions of a healthy body.
• Age-related anatomy and age-related physiology studies the features and changes in the structure and functions of the body in the process of individual human development
• Pathological anatomy and pathological physiology studies the structural features and functions of a diseased organism or one that has various congenital abnormalities.
• Particular anatomy and special physiology studies the structure and functioning of individual organs and their systems under normal conditions and under various conditions.

An organ system is a collection of organs united to perform a specific function and connected in their development. The following organ systems are distinguished in the human body:

• Musculoskeletal (skeletal and muscular system)
• Nervous system
• Digestive system
• Respiratory system
• Cardiovascular system
• Urinary system
• Reproductive organ system
• Endocrine gland system
• Sense system
• Immune system

Theoretical questions:

1. Bioelectric phenomena in tissues: the concept of irritability, excitability, inhibition. The nature of PP and PD. Neuro physiological mechanisms braking.

2. The concept of “reflex”. The structure of the reflex arc. The concept of “nervous center” using the example of the respiratory center. Properties of nerve centers. The role of I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlova in the formation and development of reflex theory.

3. The concept of lower and higher nervous activity, unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, temporary nervous connections.

4. Concept, general plan structures, general properties of analyzers. Morphofunctional organization of the visual analyzer. Refractive errors.

5. Morphofunctional organization nervous system. Main parts of the central nervous system.

6. Internal environment body. The meaning, functions and structure of blood.

7. Morphofunctional organization of the cardiovascular system. Physiological properties of the heart muscle. Regulation of cardiac activity.

8. The concept of breathing. Morphofunctional organization respiratory system.

The concept of “bioelectric phenomena in tissues”, their method of recording. Define the concepts: irritability, excitability, excitement, inhibition. Membrane-ion theory of the emergence of biopotentials PP, PD (V.Yu. Chagovets (1896), Bernstein (1902-1903), Hodgkin, Huxley, Katz. (1949-1952): structural features of the membrane that explain the origin of PP and MP. Note the presence of 2 types of channels for potential-forming ions. Show the selective permeability of the membrane during the formation of PP. Indicate the resting MP value for the nerve and muscle. Get an idea of ​​the equilibrium potential and the forces that shape it. Show the selective permeability of the membrane during the development of individual phases of PD. Expand the concepts: initial depolarization, charge inversion - “overshoot”, repolarization, subsequent depolarization, subsequent hyperpolarization; the importance of passive and active mechanisms in their implementation. Explain the concepts of threshold membrane depolarization potential (e), critical level of depolarization (E k), AP peak. An excitation wave as a set of changes in the electrical state of the membrane. Characteristics of its individual components: amplitude and duration of the AP peak, trace and hyperpolarization. Changes in excitability in different phases of the excitation wave. Absolute and relative refractoriness, exaltation, subnormal excitability. According to the mechanism, inhibition is classified as: primary and secondary, depolarizing and hyperpolarizing; presynaptic and postsynaptic inhibition. Reversible and forward inhibition with the participation of the Renshaw cell.

Give concepts - internal environment, homeostasis. List extravasar liquid media, intravasar liquid media, specialized media, indicate their number and relationship. Note the rate of exchange of substances between intra- and extravascular fluids. Give the concepts of blood, blood plasma, serum, defebrinated blood. Composition and functions of blood, Volume of circulating blood. The idea of ​​blood as a system (G.F. Lang). Hematocrit (Hct): hypo and hypervolemia. Changes in Hct during muscle work. Plasma composition. List the functions of plasma proteins. List the physical and chemical properties of blood. Salt composition of plasma. Answer the question: “What determines the osmotic pressure of plasma, and what determines the oncotic pressure of plasma?” Values ​​of osmotic and oncotic pressures of plasma. Isotonic plasma solution, hemolysis, plasmolysis, a measure of the osmotic resistance of red blood cells. Types of hemolysis. Give the concept of immunity. List the types of immunity. List nonspecific protective factors. Blood groups: ABO system, representation of agglutinins and agglutinogens. Show on the diagram the result of the interaction of human red blood cells of groups I, II, III, IV (0, A, B, AB0) with serum of 4 groups, i.e. s, 0. Explain the interaction.

Morphofunctional organization of the cardiovascular system: blood circulation circles, blood circulation time; vessels in the circulatory system, the linear speed of blood flow in them; blood depot: spleen, liver, thin-walled. The central organ of the circulatory system is the heart: general principles of structure, heart mass, wall, chambers, heart valves, two types of myocardial myocytes. One-way movement of blood in the heart. Return of blood to the heart. Properties of the heart muscle: excitability, automaticity. The Stanius experience. Contractility: the all-or-nothing law. Conductivity: the rate of conduction of excitation through the main and atypical tissue of the heart. Delay in excitation. Intracardiac regulatory mechanisms: intracellular; intracardiac - heterometric self-regulation - Frank-Starling law of cardiac fiber. Homeometric self-regulation - Benbridge's law of heart rate. Extracardiac regulatory mechanisms: nervous influences from the central nervous system along the vagus and sympathetic nerves. Tone of the centers of the cardiac nerves. The role of the hypothalamic nerve centers and the cerebral cortex in the regulation of heart function.

Concepts – breathing and the breathing process: external or pulmonary; transport of gases by blood. Respiratory system: nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs. Features of the structure of the respiratory tract (cartilaginous framework, ciliated epithelium). External breathing. The mechanism of inhalation and exhalation. Donders model. The importance of the airways. The lumen of the respiratory tract is the elastic traction of the pulmonary alveoli, negative pressure in the pleural fissure, changes in pressure in the pleural fissure during inhalation and exhalation. Pneumothorax open and closed. Gas exchange in the lungs. Indicators of pulmonary ventilation: respiratory cycle, respiratory rate, pulmonary volumes: tidal volume, inspiratory and expiratory reserves, residual volume. Functional residual capacity, VITAL. Total lung capacity. Alveolar ventilation. Composition of inhaled and exhaled alveolar air. Partial pressure of gases. Diffusion of O 2 and CO 2 in the alveoli of the lungs. Diffusion of O 2 and CO 2, changes in the partial pressure of gases along the movement of gases in the body. Transport of gases by blood. Oxygen-binding capacity of hemoglobin. KEK. COOK. Reflex and humoral regulation of breathing. Mechanics and chemoreceptors of the respiratory system. Pneumotoxic center of the medulla oblongata of the pons. The role of over-bridge structures. The role of humoral factors in the regulation of respiration.

The concept of an analyzer according to I.P. Pavlov. List and explain the general principles of the structure of analyzers - sensory systems (multilayer, multi-channel, principles of “sensory funnels”; differentiation of analyzer systems horizontally and vertically). Basic functions of analyzers. General properties: perception thresholds (absolute and differential), adaptation. The structure of the eye. The blind spot, the central fovea is the macula macula. Optical media of the eye. Reduced model of the eye. Concept of focus. Focal length. Nodal point of the eye. Optical power of the eye in the absence of accommodation. Refractive power of the eye. Gas accommodation. Near and far points of clear vision. Limits of accommodation age characteristics. Refractive errors of the eye. Receptor apparatus of the eye. Helmholtz's three-component theory of color perception. Distribution of receptors in the retina of the eye Visual acuity. Color and black and white field of view. Binocular vision

General plan of the structure of the nervous system. Functions of the nervous system. Structural and functional characteristics of the spinal cord: length, mass, diameter, where it begins and where it ends in relation to the spine, grooves, fissures. Shells. Segmental structure. Sections of the spinal cord, the number of segments in the sections of the spinal cord. Cross section of the spinal cord. Gray and white matter of the spinal cord, what does it consist of? Rear, intermediate and front pillars; rear, lateral and anterior horns; dorsal and anterior roots of the spinal cord. Spinal nerves, correspondence to segments and distribution among parts of the spinal cord. 4 branches of the spinal nerve, their functions. The diagram shows the parts of the brain stem. List the cranial nerves of the pons and medulla oblongata. Mark the vital centers of the medulla oblongata. Indicate the functions of the gracilis and cuneate nuclei of the medulla oblongata. Red nuclei and substantia nigra of the midbrain. Functions of the reticular formation of the brainstem. The diagram shows the location of the limbic brain structures and outlines their role in organizing emotions. Note the main functions of the basal ganglia, the role of primary, secondary, tertiary projection zones in the cerebral cortex. Show the role of the cerebral cortex “as the manager and distributor of all functions,” according to I.P. Pavlov.

Concept - reflex. The structure of the reflex arc (evidence of unilateral conduction of excitation along the reflex arc; evidence of the need for all parts of the reflex arc for the implementation of the reflex). Monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex arcs. The relative magnitude of the reflex time depending on the number of synaptic switches and the strength of the stimulus causing the response. Concept - latent period of reflex The concept of a nerve center. Multilevel organization of the nerve center using the example of the respiratory center Properties of nerve centers: unilateral conduction of excitation, delay in conduction of excitation, irradiation, concentration, summation (sequential and spatial), occlusion, “facilitation” of conduction of excitation, transformation of the rhythm of excitation, aftereffect phenomenon, “patternability” of the path of excitation,” increased sensitivity to lack of oxygen, fatigue. Thoughts by I.M. Sechenov about the reflex nature of “mental life”, set out in the book “Reflexes of the Brain”. Explanation of appropriate forms of behavior (adaptive reactions to useful and harmful stimuli; “reasonableness of involuntary reflexes,” shown to him by the example of a headless frog; the ability of the brain to regulate the functioning of the spinal cord). "Sechenov braking". Sechenov’s rule: “active rest restores performance better than passive rest,” etc. Formulate and explain the three principles of the reflex theory of I.M. Sechenov - I.P. Pavlova. The idea of ​​the leading role of the nervous system in regulating the activity of organs and systems. The doctrine of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, conditions and mechanisms of their development

Define the concepts of NND and VND, noting the functions of both parts of the nervous system. Give comparative characteristics unconditioned and conditioned reflexes. List the conditions for the formation of conditioned reflexes. Stages of formation of conditioned reflexes. Show the mechanism for the development of a conditioned salivary reflex to any environmental stimulus. Note what factors influence the stability of conditioned reflexes. Give a classification of conditioned reflexes depending on serial number their development on the basis of the unconditioned reflex. On the basis of what signals are reflexes developed? higher order. Give a classification of conditioned reflexes depending on the time of action of the signal and reinforcement, what is their biological significance. Characterize two types of unconditional inhibition (extraordinary and inductive). How, using the example of unconditional inhibition, the law of force and the law of time of action of external stimuli “work.” Which type of inductive inhibition is the basis for the manifestation of an indicative reaction to strong light or sound? Which part of the brain is involved in organizing the orienting reaction? List 4 types of inhibition of conditioned reflexes, give examples.

PROGRAM OF THE ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE “Human and Animal Physiology”, Rostov state university, Educational Research Institute of Valeology

Rostov State University

Educational Research Institute of Valeology

Approved on joint meeting Department of Human and Animal Physiology and the Institute of Valeology of the Russian State University - May 10, 2001

Head of the Department of Human and Animal Physiology, Director of the Russian State University Research Institute of Intellectual Property, Professor G.A. Kuraev

ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE PROGRAM« Physiology of humans and animals»

Doctor of Biological Sciences, prof. G.A.Kuraev

Rostov-on-Don

Course program "physiology of humans and animals"
for 3rd year students of the Faculty of Biology and Soil Sciences
specialty "teacher-valeologist"
(Doctor of Biological Sciences, Prof. G.A. Kuraev)

Explanatory note

The course of human and animal physiology for students of the Faculty of Biology and Soil Sciences, specializing in “teacher-valeology” at the university, differs significantly from the course taught for students of medical and pedagogical specialties. Unlike physicians and educators, valeologists should focus on the evolution of physiological functions and understand how they are formed in living beings different types with an emphasis on age-related characteristics of physiological processes in humans, how environmental factors, the body’s lifestyle influence the development of functions of body systems, how functional adaptation to natural, including social, living conditions occurs, and how factors of the social environment influence a person’s psychological status , environment.

Basically, human physiology has been studied for many years using traditionally compiled textbooks for medical universities, where issues of normal physiology are considered. This category of textbooks includes textbooks by E.B. Babsky and others, 1972 edition, team of authors edited by B.I. Tkachenko, 1994; V.M. Pokrovsky et al., 1997; “Physiological foundations of human health”, edited by B.I. Tkachenko, 2001.

The program of the course in human and animal physiology at Rostov State University provides for introducing students to the development of physiological functions in phylogenesis, ontogenesis, taking into account genetic and phenotypic factors that influence the functioning of different levels of organization of structures and systems of the body, ranging from the subcellular level to the whole organism. The course of lectures provides for the study of the importance of the functions of body systems for the development and rehabilitation of their adaptive, reserve, and compensatory capabilities.

Name of sections, topics	Number of hours
		Seminars. Classes	Independent work
Topic 1. Subject of physiology. History of physiology.
Topic 2. Physiology of excitable tissues. Physiology of nervous tissue.
Topic 3. Physiology of muscle tissue. Physiology of glandular tissue.
Topic 4. Principles of organizing the management of body functions. Physiology of the central nervous system.
Topic 5. Physiology of the autonomic nervous system. Internal environment of the body.
Topic 6. Physiology of blood. Blood and lymph circulation. Cardiovascular system.
Topic 7. Breathing.
Topic 8 Physiology of the digestive system.
Topic 9 Metabolism and energy.
Topic 10 Physiology of the excretory system.
Topic 11 Sensory systems.
Topic 12. Integrative brain activity.
Practical exercises
Total

Basic literature

Physiology of humans and animals / Ed. ed. A.B. Kogan. M.: graduate School, 1984.

Human physiology / Ed. V.M. Pokrovsky. M.: Medicine, 1997.

Fundamentals of human physiology, T. 1,2,3 / Ed. B.I. Tkachenko. St. Petersburg: Publishing house “Culture Fund”, 1994

Physiology of humans and animals / Ed. HELL. Nozdracheva. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1998.

Aleynikova T.V., Dumbay V.N., Kuraev G.A., Feldman G.L. Physiology of the central nervous system // Tutorial, ed. II additional - Rostov-on-Don: “Phoenix”, 2000. - 384 p.

Physiological foundations of human health / Edited by B.I. Tkachenko. – St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk: Publishing Center of the Northern State Medical University, 2001. – 728 p.

Course program

"Physiology of humans and animals"

I. Subject of physiology.

1.1. Definition of the subject of physiology. Methods of physiological research. Chronic and acute experiment. Electrophysiological research methods. Clinical research method. Observation method. Irritation methods. Method of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. Biophysical research methods. Cybernetic research methods. Psychological methods research. Evolutionary research method. Ontogenetic research method.

Sections of physiology. Physiology of cells and subcellular formations. Physiology of tissues. Physiology of organs. Physiology of body systems. Physiology of the organism as a whole. Clinical physiology. Normal physiology. Physiology of labor. Physiology of sports and physical culture. Evolutionary physiology. Physiology of mental work. Physiology of physical labor. Physiology of ontogenesis - critical age periods.

Connection of physiology with other sciences. The connection between physiology and the clinic. Physiology and biophysics. Physiology and biochemistry. Physiologists and cybernetics. Physiology and anatomy. Physiology and anatomy. Physiology and psychology. Physiology and pedagogy. Physiology and veterinary medicine.

History of physiology.

1.2. Ancient period and the Middle Ages. Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen, Erasistratus, Avicenna.

Renaissance. Harvey, Malpighi, Bernoulli, Hals, Lavoisier, Descartes, Lamettrie, Galvani, Volta, Prochaska.

XIX century. Darwin, Schleiden, Schwann, Sechenov, Ludwig, Weber, Zion, Pavlov, Donders, Mislavsky, Goering, Danilevsky, Heidenhain, Pashutin, C. Bernard, Dubois-Reymond, Pfluger, Helmoltz, Babukhin, Vvedensky, Sherrington, Flourens, Mechnikov.

XX century. Pavlov, Bykov, Orbeli, Chernigovsky, Petrova, Anokhin, Asratyan, Biryukov, Voronin, Bekhterev, Beritov, Vvedensky, Ukhtomsky, Sherrington, Megun, Moruzzi, Bernstein, Hodgkin, Huxley, Eccles, Jasper, Babkin, Kurtsin, Kogan, Gazenko, Simonov.

II. Physiology of excitable tissues.

2.1. Properties of excitable tissues: irritability, excitability, excitement, irritation. Galvani's experiments. Dubois-Reymond experiments.

2.2. Structure and properties of cell membranes: barrier functions of the cell membrane; regulatory functions of the cell membrane; electrical properties; mediator functions of the membrane. Structure and functions of ion channels in the cell membrane.

2.3. Methods for studying excitable cells. Microelectrode method for recording the electrical potential of a membrane. Methods of irritating an excitable cell.

2.4. Resting potential and action potential. Action various forms electric current to charge the membrane. Polar law of current action. Threshold of irritation, useful time of irritation, chronaxy. Phases of parabiosis.

Physiology of nervous tissue.

2.5. Structure and classification of neurons. Functions of neurons. Neuron soma. Neuron membrane. The nucleus and nucleolus of a neuron. Functions of dendrites and axons. Morphological classification of neurons. Unipolar neurons. Pseudounipolar neurons. Bipolar neurons. Multifield neurons. Functional classification of neurons. Monosensory neurons. Bisensory neurons. Polysensory neurons. Monomodal, bimodal, polymodal neurons. Background active neurons. Forms of neuronal activity. Afferent neurons. Interneurons. Efferent neurons.

2.6. Receptors. Receptor and generator potentials.

2.7. Neuroglia. Types of neuroglia, functions of neuroglial cells.

2.8. Conducting excitation along the nerves. Classification nerve fibers. Features of the conduction of excitation along myelinated and non-myelinated fibers.

2.9. Physiology of synapses. The concept of synapse. Classification of synapses. Synapses with chemical and electrical methods of excitation transmission. Inhibitory and excitatory synapses. Neuromuscular synapses.

III. Physiology of muscle tissue.

3.1. Types of muscle tissue: smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle. Muscle functions. Methods for studying muscle functions: ergometric methods, electrophysiological methods.

Skeletal muscles. Classification of skeletal muscle fibers. Properties and functions of slow muscle fibers. Properties and functions of fast muscle fibers. Properties and functions of tonic muscle fibers.

3.2. Structural organization muscle fiber and the mechanism of muscle contraction. Phases of muscle contraction. Single muscle contraction. Summation and tetanus. Muscle work and power. Energy and heat generation during muscle contractions.

3.3. Smooth muscles. Classification of smooth muscles. The structure of smooth muscles. Functions and properties of smooth muscles.

Physiology of glandular tissue.

3.4. Secretion, its types. Functions of secretory systems. Secretory cycle. Regulation of secretion.

IV. Principles of organizing the management of body functions.

4.1. Mismatch management. Indignation management. Nervous control mechanisms. Humoral control mechanisms.

4.2. Self-regulation of physiological systems. Homeostasis. Direct and feedback. Anokhin's functional system.

Physiology of the central nervous system.

4.3. Methods for studying the functions of the central nervous system. A method of turning off brain structures. Depression method. Denervation method. Electrophysiological methods. Modeling method. Reflex method. Evolution of the central nervous system.

4.4. Inhibition in the central nervous system.

4.5. Properties of nerve centers.

4.6. Blood-brain barrier and cerebrospinal fluid.

4.7. Spinal cord. Structure and functions of the spinal cord. Conducting systems of the spinal cord. Neural organization of the spinal cord horns. Spinal cord reflexes. Segmental reflex arc. Myotatic reflexes. Reflexes from skin receptors. Visceromotor reflexes. Reflexes of the autonomic system.

4.8. Brain stem. Structure of the medulla oblongata. Sensory, conductive, reflex and integrative functions of the medulla oblongata. Bridge. Structure of the brain pons. Sensory, conductive, reflex and integrative functions of the bridge. Structure of the midbrain. Sensory, conductive, motor, reflex and integrative functions of the midbrain. Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus. Cerebellum: cerebellar cortex, subcortical structures of the cerebellum, functions of the cerebellum, interaction of the cerebellum with the cerebral cortex. Limbic system of the brain: hippocampus, amygdala.

4.9. Basal ganglia of the brain. Structure and functions of the caudate nucleus and putamen. Structure and functions of the globus pallidus. Structure and functions of the fence.

4.10. Cerebral cortex. Morphofunctional organization. Neurons of the cortex. Layers of bark. Sensory areas of the cortex. Motor cortex areas. Association areas of the cortex. Electrical activity of the cerebral cortex. Interhemispheric relationships of the cortex.

4.11. Coordination of movements.

V. Physiology of the autonomic nervous system.

5.1. Functional structure autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic nervous system. Parasympathetic nervous system. Autonomic reflexes: viscero-visceral, viscero-somatic, somato-visceral.

Internal environment of the body. Mechanisms to ensure its constancy and adaptive changes.

5.2. Principles of hormonal regulation. Methods for studying hormonal regulation.

5.3. Pituitary gland and its hormones.

5.4. Thyroid gland.

5.5. Parathyroid.

5.6. Adrenal glands.

5.7. Pancreas.

5.8. Sex glands.

VI. Physiology of blood.

6.1. Concept of the blood system. Blood functions. The amount of blood in the body.

6.2. Blood plasma, its composition and functions. Physico-chemical properties blood.

6.3. Formed elements of blood. Red blood cells. Erythron. Leukocytes. Leukocyte formula. Neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, monocytes, lymphocytes. Regulation of leukopoiesis. Resistance and immunity.

6.4. Platelets and their functions.

6.5. Blood groups. Rh factor.

6.6. Blood clotting. Fibrinolysis.

6.7. Blood and lymph circulation.

1. Structure of the blood and lymph circulation system. Functions of the blood and lymph circulation system.

Cardiovascular system.

6.9. Physiology of the heart. Functions of the heart muscle. Functions of the conduction system of the heart. Functions of the membranes of the heart. Functions of the pericardium.

6.10. Cardiogram. Electrocardiogram. Phases of heart contraction. Heart rhythms. Pumping function of the heart. Cardiac output - minute volume. Mechanical and sound manifestations of cardiac activity.

6.11. Regulation of heart activity. Intracellular regulatory mechanisms. Regulation of heart activity from receptors of the endocardium, myocardium, epicardium and pericardium. Regulation of heart activity by the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. Intersystem regulation of cardiac activity. Humoral regulation of heart activity. Conditioned reflex regulation of heart activity. Reflexes of the heart.

6.12. Functions of the vascular system. Classification of vessels, principles of hemodynamics. Blood pressure, arterial pulse, volumetric blood flow velocity. Movement of blood in capillaries. Microcirculation. Movement of blood in the veins. Regulation of blood movement through the vessels: nervous, humoral. Vascular reflexes. Blood depots. Cerebral circulation. Blood circulation in the heart.

6.13. Lymph circulation. Structure of the lymphatic system. Lymph formation and its composition. Movement of lymph through vessels. Functions of the lymphatic system.

VII. Breath.

7.1. Structure and functions of the respiratory system. Types of respiration: external, pulmonary, alveolar, tissue, cellular. Evolution of the respiratory system.

7.2. Structure and functions of the lungs. Inhalation mechanism. Intrapleural pressure. Exhalation mechanism. Pulmonary ventilation: lung volumes. Tidal volume, inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume. Residual volume. Vital capacity of the lungs. Transport of gases and gas exchange. Regulation of breathing: nervous and humoral. Breathing reflexes.

VIII. Physiology of the digestive system.

8.1. The structure of the digestive system. Functions of the digestive system. Methods for studying the digestive system. Theories of hunger and satiety. The concept of “appetite”, types of appetite disorders. Types of digestion.

8.2. Digestion in the oral cavity. Salivation. Chewing. Swallowing.

8.3. Digestion in the stomach. The structure and functions of the parts of the stomach. The mechanism of formation and composition of gastric juice. Regulation of gastric secretion: nervous, humoral. Motor function of the stomach. Evacuation of food from the stomach and duodenum.

8.4. Digestion in the small intestine. Digestion in duodenum. Regulation of pancreatic juice secretion. Bile secretion and bile secretion. Mechanisms and regulation. Intestinal secretion. Cavity and parietal digestion. Motility of the small intestine. The mechanism of absorption of proteins, fats and carbohydrates in the small intestine.

8.5. Functions of the large intestine.

IX. Metabolism and energy.

9.1. Methods for studying energy exchange. Basal metabolism and its measurements at rest and during exercise. Regulation of energy metabolism.

9.2. Protein metabolism. Nitrogen balance. Regulation of protein metabolism.

9.3. Lipid metabolism. Formation and breakdown of fats in the body. Regulation of fat metabolism.

9.4. Carbohydrate metabolism. Changes in carbohydrates in the body. Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism.

9.5. Exchange of mineral salts, vitamins and water.

X. Physiology of the excretory system.

10.1. Excretory organs: kidneys, lungs, salivary glands, gastrointestinal glands, skin glands, lacrimal glands. Evolution of the excretory system.

10.2. Kidneys and their functions. Methods for studying kidney function. Nephron. Structure and functions of nephron sections. Rotary counterflow kidney system. Regulation of kidney functions: nervous and humoral.

XI. Sensory systems.

11.1. Concept of sensory system. Methods for studying sensory systems. General principles of the structure of sensory systems. Functions of sensory systems. Coding of information in sensory systems.

11.2. Visual system. Structure and functions of the structures of the visual system. Refractive errors of the eye: myopia, farsightedness, astigmatism. The retina of the eye and its functions. Electroretinogram. Light sensitivity. Visual adaptation. Differential visual sensitivity. Color vision and theories of color perception. The role of eye movements for vision.

11.3. Auditory system. Structure and functions of the auditory system. Outer ear. Middle ear. Inner ear. The mechanism of auditory reception. Auditory sensations. Binaural hearing.

11.4. Vestibular system. Structure and functions of the vestibular apparatus.

11.5. Somatosensory system. Skin reception. Proprioceptive sensitivity.

11.6. Olfactory system. Structure and functions of the olfactory apparatus.

11.7. Taste system. Structure and functions of the taste system.

XII. Integrative brain activity.

12.1. Conditioned reflex and mechanisms of its formation. Methods for developing conditioned reflexes. Types of conditioned reflexes. Types of inhibition of conditioned reflexes. Dynamics of the main nervous processes. Types of higher nervous activity. Unconditioned reflexes and instincts. Classification of unconditioned reflexes and instincts.

12.2. Physiological mechanisms of memory. Short-term and long-term memory.

12.3. Physiological mechanisms of emotions. Stages of development of emotions.

12.4. Sleep and hypnosis. Mechanisms of sleep. Stages of sleep. Dreams. Hypnotic sleep.

12.5. Thinking, intelligence.

12.6. Second alarm system. Speech.

12.7. Functional interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain and its evolution.

Practical lessons of the course

"Physiological foundations of valeology" (16 hours)

Thematic outline of the course "Human and Animal Physiology"

Subject physiology, its content is the study of general and particular mechanisms of activity of the whole organism and all its organs and systems. Ultimate task physiology - such a deep knowledge of the functions of the body that would provide the possibility of actively influencing them in the desired direction. According to I.P. Pavlov, medicine, only by constantly enriching itself, day after day, with new physiological facts, will it finally someday become what it should ideally be, i.e. the ability to repair a damaged mechanism of the human body on the basis of its exact knowledge, to be an applied knowledge of physiology. It is no coincidence that physiology first began to develop as a medical science. According to K. Bernard's definition, physiology is the scientific core on which all sciences rest; In essence, there is only one science in medicine: the science of life, or physiology. On modern stage physiology poses the following tasks: learning function:

• healthy body as a whole;
• various systems, organs, tissues, cells; study of mechanisms:
• interaction of various organs and systems in the whole organism;
• regulation of the functioning of organs and systems;
• interaction of the body with environment.

According to I.P. Pavlov, the task of physiology is to understand the work of the human body, to determine the significance of each of its parts, to understand how these parts are connected, how they interact and how, as a result of their interaction, a gross result is obtained - the overall work of the body.

The very first , used in physiology were observation and inference, which, however, have not lost their significance at the present stage. But the physiologist cannot be satisfied with observation alone, since it only answers the question: what's happening in the body. It is also important to find out how and why physiological processes occur. For this you need experiments, experiments, those. influences that are created artificially by the researcher himself.

Experiments can be acute (vivisection, or live cutting) or chronic; their main advantages and disadvantages are presented in table. 1.

Studies performed on humans are usually carried out in limited variants that allow the assessment different sides body functioning:

• in a state of physiological rest - normal functioning;
• reaction to optimal loads - reaction norm;
• response to maximum loads - assessment of reserve capabilities.

In this case, the biological optimum of life processes is considered the physiological norm.

Table 1. Comparison of acute and chronic experiment

The main stages in the development of physiology as a science associated with changes in the methods used:

• the pre-experimental period (ancient and middle ages), when the main methods were observations and inferences, which often led to erroneous conclusions (the heart is the organ of the soul, the spirit is mixed through the arteries, and blood through the veins);
• 1628 W. Harvey. “The study of the movement of the heart and blood in the body” - the introduction of acute experiments in physiological research;
• 1883 I.P. Pavlov. “Centrifugal nerves of the heart” - introduction of a chronic experiment technique;
• the modern stage is the integration of research at the molecular-cellular and systemic (organismal) level, which allows us to combine ideas about cellular processes and their regulation at the level of the whole organism.

Basic principles of physiology:

• the body is a single system that unites various organs in their complex interaction with each other;
• the principle of structure (integrity) - physiological processes can be carried out with the anatomical and functional integrity of all elements that ensure these processes;
• “An organism without an external environment that supports its existence is impossible. Therefore, the scientific definition of an organism should also include the environment that influences it” (I.M. Sechenov, 1861);
• “all physiological mechanisms, no matter how different they may be, have only one goal - maintaining the constancy of living conditions in the internal phase” (C. Bernard, 1878), or homeostasis (according to Cannon);
• the principle of determinism - any activity of the body and its organs and systems is causally determined;
• adaptation - a set of mechanisms that ensure the body’s adaptation to constantly changing environmental conditions;
• the integrity of the body and its connection with the external environment, ensured by neuro-humoral mechanisms;
• homeostasis and adaptation are the main mechanisms for ensuring life;
• principle of reliability of biological systems: the body and its systems have a reserve of strength, which is provided by the following components:
  • redundancy of functional elements (for example, 25% of lung tissue is quite enough for external respiration);
  • function reservation (of the 1 million nephrons present in the kidney, only a part of them functions at the same time, the rest remain in reserve);
  • frequency of functioning of all elements (for example, opening and closing, i.e. flickering, capillaries); duplication of functions (the heart pump has assistants in the form of peripheral hearts - skeletal muscles, the contraction of which pushes blood through the venous vessels).

Physiology of humans and animals

Physiology - the science of the vital functions of the body and its structures, the mechanisms of their implementation and the patterns of regulation.

In the very general view The definition of physiology is this: it is the science of nature, the essence of life processes. Name physiology comes from Greek words physics- nature and logos- teaching.

Physiology studies the manifestations of vital functions, starting from the molecular level and ending with the vital activity of the entire organism, including its behavioral reactions, consciousness and thinking. It examines the sources of energy and the role of various substances in life, the mechanisms of cell interactions, their association into tissues, organs, physiological systems and the whole organism, as well as the ways in which the organism interacts with its environment, its reaction to the influence of this environment, mechanisms of adaptation to unfavorable conditions and maintaining health.

The term “physiology”, used in a broad sense, denotes a huge amount of knowledge about the essence of life processes. Since these processes are largely different in plant and animal organisms, plant physiology and human and animal physiology are distinguished.

Physiology and animals are also divided. Along with the fact that vertebrate animals and humans have many similarities in the functioning of internal organs, there are also huge differences between them, primarily in the nature and level of mental functions. This main difference is reflected in the name homosapiens- a thinking person. The volume of the subject of research led to the fact that in physiology they began to distinguish its parts as special academic disciplines: physiology of the cell, heart, blood, circulation, respiration, nervous system (neurophysiology), sensory systems, etc. Some sections of physiology studied in biological and medical universities as separate academic disciplines are given below:

• age physiology studies age-related features of human life, patterns of formation, development and decline of body functions;
• physiology considers the impact labor activity of a person on life processes, develops methods and means of ensuring labor that help maintain a person’s ability to work at a high level;
• aviation and space physiology studies the reactions of the human body to the influence of atmospheric and space flight factors in order to develop means of ensuring human life and health in conditions of low atmospheric pressure and space;
• ecological physiology identifies the peculiarities of the influence of climatic and geographical conditions and a specific habitat on the body and ways to improve the quality of adaptation to adverse environmental influences;
• evolutionary and comparative physiology looks at patterns evolutionary development physiological processes, mechanisms, regulations, as well as their similarities and differences in organisms located on different levels phylogeny.

IN educational institutions medical profile in a single course of physiology, only some materials from the above specialized courses are considered. Medical school programs are focused on course study human physiology(they often use the general name physiology).

From a single science, human physiology in a number of countries ( former USSR, post-Soviet republics, some European countries) was highlighted as a separate subject pathological physiology - a science that studies the general patterns of the occurrence, course and outcome of pathological processes and diseases. In contrast, the study of the life processes of a healthy organism began to be called normal physiology. In higher medical educational institutions of Belarus, these subjects are studied separately in the departments of normal and pathological physiology. In some countries they are combined under the name medical physiology.

Physiology has a close connection with other fundamental theoretical medical sciences: anatomy, histology, biochemistry. Physiology, as it were, unites these sciences, uses their knowledge and creates a community - the foundation of medical and biological knowledge, without which it is impossible to master the medical profession.

For example, today the most important problem in medicine is the treatment and prevention of diseases of the cardiovascular system. What knowledge does physiology provide to solve this problem? The section on cardiac physiology studies the main function of the heart as a pump and regulator of blood movement; the mechanisms for implementing this function are clarified: the processes of automatic generation of excitation, its conduction through specialized structures, the mechanism of heart contraction and expulsion of blood into the vascular system. Particular attention is paid to the study of the mechanisms of regulation of the heart, its adaptation to the changing needs of blood flow in various organs. The biophysical and molecular mechanisms that control the excitability, conductivity and contractility of the heart muscle are studied. Based on these data, modern biochemistry and pharmacology synthesize medicinal substances that provide the possibility of treating cardiac disorders. The subject of physiology is also the development and study of methods for studying the functions and condition of the heart. From the above materials it becomes obvious that without knowledge of physiology it is impossible not only to treat, but also to diagnose diseases.

A very important task of physiology is also to ensure the assimilation of knowledge about the interrelations of life processes, organs and systems, the formation of a holistic response of the body to various influences and general principles regulation of such reactions. All this should lay the foundation for the “functional thinking” of the future physician, his ability, based on individual symptoms, to mentally model possible relationships and mechanisms, causing the appearance these symptoms, find the root cause and ways to eliminate pathological processes.

It is also important to teach future doctors to be observant and study indicators of physiological functions, and to instill the skills to perform diagnostic and medical procedures.

The subject of human physiology also faces the task of determining the reserves of physiological systems, assessing the level of human health and developing ways to increase its resistance to the effects of adverse factors occurring in the labor sphere, the natural and domestic environment.

Concept and types of physiology

Physiology(from Greek physics- nature, logos- doctrine) - the science of the vital functions of the body and its structures, the mechanisms for implementing these functions and the patterns of their regulation.

Animal Physiology is a biological science that studies the vital functions of an organism, its constituent organs and tissues in connection with the external environment.

The subject of physiology is the vital processes of the body and its individual organs in connection with individual development and adaptation to environmental conditions. The problems under study include: patterns of biological processes at different structural levels, the formation of physiological functions at different age periods, mechanisms of interaction of individual body systems with the environment, features of the mechanisms of regulation of life processes in various species, methods of targeted influence on certain physiological systems.

Under physiological function understand the manifestation of the vital activity of a cell (for example, the contraction of a muscle cell), an organ (for example, the formation of urine by the kidney), a system (for example, the formation and destruction of blood cells by the hematopoietic system).

Physiology studies the manifestations of vital functions at various levels of organization of living things: molecular, cellular, organ, systemic and holistic organism, including its behavioral reactions, consciousness and thinking. Physiological science provides answers to the questions: what is the source of energy, what is the role of various substances in life, how cells interact and combine into tissues, organs, physiological systems and the whole organism. Physiology studies the ways an organism interacts with its environment, its reactions to changes in the environment, the mechanisms of adaptation to unfavorable conditions and the preservation of health.

A term used in a broad sense physiology denotes a huge amount of knowledge about the essence of life processes. Since these processes are largely different in plant and animal organisms, plant physiology and human and animal physiology are distinguished.

Human and animal physiology are also divided. Along with the fact that vertebrate animals and humans have many similarities in the functioning of internal organs, there are also huge differences between them, primarily in the nature and level of mental functions.

The huge amount of knowledge in various fields of physiological science has led to the fact that in physiology its parts began to be distinguished as special academic disciplines: cell physiology, physiology of the heart, blood, circulation, respiration, nervous system (neurophysiology), physiology of sensory systems, etc. In institutions of higher education with a biological profile, age-related physiology is studied as separate academic disciplines; physiology of work, sports; aviation, space, evolutionary physiology, etc.

Normal phytology- a science that studies the basic patterns and mechanisms of regulation of the functioning of the organism as a whole and its individual components in interaction with the environment, the organization of life processes at various structural and functional levels. The main task of physiology is to penetrate into the logic of the life of an organism.

General physiology - a section of the discipline that studies the fundamental patterns of the body’s response to environmental influences, its basic processes and mechanisms.

Private physiology - a section that studies the patterns and mechanisms of functioning of individual systems, organs and tissues of the body.

Cell physiology- a section that studies the basic patterns of cell functioning.

Comparative and evolutionary physiology- a section that explores the peculiarities of the functioning of different species and the same species at different stages of individual development.

Ecological physiology - section that studies the characteristics of the functioning of the body in various physical-geographical zones, in different time periods, the physiological basis of adaptation to natural factors.

Physiology of labor activity - a section that studies the patterns of functioning of the body when performing physical and other work.

Sports physiology - section that studies the patterns of functioning of the body during exercise various types physical education at an amateur or professional level.

Pathological physiology - the science of the general patterns of occurrence, development and course of disease-causing processes in the body.