Many professions, especially those that are directly related to the need for constant communication with people, require proficiency in oratory, rhetoric, and, therefore, speech culture in general at a high level.

It combines those qualities that are designed to have the maximum impact on the addressee, depending on the situation, goals and objectives. Thus, the quality of speech directly depends on the concepts:

• accuracy;
• understandability;
• right;
• expressiveness;
• richness and variety;

From the first three qualities comes the concept of logical speech, which is significant in terms of conveying information to the listener and ensuring its correct perception.

Logical speech implies the ability to consistently express thoughts. It is also necessary to express their content consistently and convincingly.

The logic of speech is similar in its functions to accuracy. Both of these qualities characterize the content associated with reality and thinking. But logicality considers the construction of the very structure of speech from the angle of fulfilling the laws of logic and the correctness of thinking, coherence and meaningfulness of sentences. There are two types of logic: substantive and conceptual.

By subject matter we mean the correspondence of the narrative regarding the relationships between phenomena and objects in reality. Conceptual logic correlates the adequacy of the construction of thought and its meaningful development. These two types are inextricably linked. Although they can be separated either intentionally, which is often found in fiction, fairy tales, mystical literature, or as a result of logical errors that may be made in the thinking process.

The art of freely expressing your thoughts implies not only logical speech, but also the absence of mistakes.

The basic principles to which human thinking as a whole is subject are observed in all. These rules must be followed most strictly when presenting information in a scientific style, since the emphasized logic and unambiguity of statements is one of the specific inherent characteristics that dictate the use and organization scientific style. In literary language, these rules are not so fundamental, and sometimes they are deliberately violated to create deeper images of characters.

Errors in speech may be associated with poor command of language or style. Again, sometimes they are quite justified in fiction.

Modern linguists distinguish two types of norms: strictly obligatory (imperative) and complementary, that is, not strictly obligatory (dispositive).

Mandatory, violation of them within the framework of speech culture is unacceptable, mainly these rules relate to grammar (correctness of conjugations, declensions, stresses, genders, etc.). These norms are characterized by strict unambiguity.

Dispositive norms do not have such restrictions and allow stylistically different or neutral options. Here the assessment occurs at the level of justification for using a linguistic unit in the context of using a particular style.

Pedagogical speech science. Dictionary-Directory

Logic of speech

communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the speech-thinking relationship. L.r. associated with the semantic and syntactic organization of both the utterance and the text. To achieve L.r. It is necessary to achieve semantic consistency of statements in the whole text. There are two types of linear logic: objective logic and conceptual logic. Subject L.r. consists in the correspondence of semantic connections and relationships of a unit of language in speech to the connections and relationships of objects and phenomena in reality. Conceptual L.r. is a reflection of the structure of thought and its development in the semantic connections of language elements in speech. Subject and conceptual L.r. exist in close interaction, but in different types and forms of speech, one of them can be actualized. It is known that there are two main ways of cognition - induction and deduction. Induction consists of moving from the particular to the general, “from living contemplation to abstract thinking.” Deduction goes from the abstract to the concrete. Induction and deduction also exist as methods of logical organization of the presented material for communicating the results of knowledge. What is known inductively can be presented using deduction and vice versa. There are other manifestations of the discrepancy between objective and conceptual L.R. Our thought can have as its objects not only real objects, phenomena of reality and their properties, but also concepts themselves. The speech realization of such a thought is not

is directly correlated with the “logic” of the objective world, and we can only talk about conceptual logic. There are forms of speech where the objective L.r. deliberately eliminated - fairy tales, works of fiction and other forms of artistic verbal creativity. But conceptual L.r. as a reflection of the structure of thought and its development in the semantic connections of the elements of speech should be present here too.

Conditions of L. r. can be extralinguistic and actually linguistic. The first condition is extralinguistic: mastery of the logic of reasoning. The second condition is actually linguistic: knowledge linguistic means, contributing to the organization of semantic coherence and consistency of elements of speech structure. This second condition operates at the level of speech and can be designated as mastery of the logic of presentation. The logic of presentation differs from the logic of cognition in its clear focus on the interlocutor, on the situation of speech. Compliance with or violation of the logic of presentation affects the understanding of the speech by the listener or reader. Specific linguistic conditions of L.r. - primarily syntactic. Moreover, some of them act in the space of one statement, others - within a more complex association of statements (complex whole), and others - can only be found in the whole text. Terms of L.r. at the level of utterance: a) consistent combination of one word with another; b) correct word order; c) such means of expressing and maintaining L.R. as function words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles), introductory words and phrases (therefore, so, therefore, firstly, secondly, most importantly, in other words, etc.). Functional words and introductory words serve as a means of expressing logic and at the level separate statement, and at the level of connected text. Terms of L.r. at the level of a coherent text: a) designation of transitions from one thought to another. The vagueness of transitions from one message to another can lead to a direct comic effect; b) dividing the text into paragraphs; c) selection of syntactic structures adequate to the nature of the expressed content; violate L.r. can, as an unjustified fragmentation of thought (through its expression mainly simple sentences), as well as its excessive complexity (unmotivated condensation of a group of complete sentences into one complex sentence); d) L.r. at the level of the whole text (and not its parts) depends on its composition, on the method of organizing the presented content.

Logicity is a communicative quality of speech, which presupposes the ability to consistently, consistently and convincingly present its content.

And here again there is a difference between substantive logic and conceptual logic.

Subject logic is expressed in accordance with the correspondence of semantic connections in the text with connections and relationships of objects and phenomena of real reality. Subject logic is associated with the ability to build a convincing argument.

Conceptual logic- this is the correct reflection in speech of the structure of reasoning, the expression by linguistic means of semantic connections between parts of the text.

There is a deep internal connection between the logic of thinking and the logic of presentation. In order to learn to speak and write logically, you need to learn to think logically, master the rules of reasoning, and avoid logical errors and miscalculations. But besides this, you need to learn how to structure your speech in such a way that the logical connections of the text are fully understood by your interlocutors or readers. This is especially true again for scientific and business texts.

The difference between the two types of logic is felt when the rules of logic are violated in speech, in the so-called alogisms, that is, in logical errors. Full reflection in speech of the logical relations of the text makes speech logical.

Definition is a logical operation that reveals the content of a concept.

Giving, for example, a definition of the concept thermometer, we point out that this is, firstly, a device, and secondly, exactly the one with which temperature is measured. That is, we first attribute this concept to the nearest generic concept, and then we name its distinctive feature (signs) in a series of similar concepts (monometer, dynamometer, tachometer, etc.).

Logic as scientific and academic discipline also considers how judgments (statements) are correctly constructed, how conclusions, proof and refutation should be constructed, and what logical laws apply. We will not touch on this side of the problem. Let's touch on the language rules of logic.

Logic is related to correct construction sentences and complete text.

Yes, in a sentence In summer, fires break out in forests due to careless handling of fire. the word “thanks to” contradicts the content of the thought. The meaning of the statement Utilities must be paid not only on the first day of each month, but also earlier is distorted because the word “should” is used incorrectly instead of “can”. It turns out that public utilities you have to pay twice.

Misuse of homonyms can create ambiguity. For example, in the phrase By the age of 25, my son had settled down the word "settled down" can also be understood as "got academic degree", and how "he became sedate."

Ambiguity also arises in the following combinations: calling a doctor, blaming a friend, inviting a teacher, helping a mother, etc.

Illogicality arises when a pronoun is used incorrectly: Tomorrow the doors of schools will open to schoolchildren, having rested over the summer, they will sit down at their desks again. The word "doors" is placed closer to the pronoun, and nonsense has arisen.

The logic of speech is also related to correct use unions in complex sentence, and indicating in the text the sequence of presentation, etc.

Thus , consistency of speech, as the most important quality of speech culture, is associated with compliance with the rules of logic, accuracy of word use and the structure (composition) of the finished text.

The actual linguistic, or structural, condition for the logic of speech is mastery of the logic of presentation. The structural prerequisite for the logical presentation of thoughts is the correct compatibility (syntagmatics) of language elements at the lexical-semantic, morphological and syntactic levels. The logical nature of the presentation is manifested in the accuracy of the use of words and phrases, in the correct construction of sentences and coherent text as a whole, i.e. is closely related to the accuracy and correctness of speech and relies on them.

The correct use of words, which contributes to the creation of conceptual accuracy, is at the same time one of the prerequisites for the logic of speech. The use of words not in accordance with their meaning often leads not only to inaccuracy of speech, but also to illogicalities. For example, in the sentence In summer V forests flare up fires thanks to careless treatment With fire semantics of the word thanks to contradicts the content of the thought. The meaning of the statement Utilities services necessary pay Not only V first numbers everyone months, But And earlier as a result of incorrect use of the word necessary(instead of Can) does not correspond to reality: it turns out that utilities must be paid twice.

If homonyms and ambiguous words are used incorrectly in speech, one of the most common logical errors can occur - ambiguity in understanding the statement (amphiboly): TO 25 years son settled down ( received an academic degree or became sedate?); Defender wearily sank on bench ( a defensive player or one who protects someone, something from encroachment, attack, etc.?). Incorrect use of words, due to poor or insufficient knowledge of reality, is the cause of non-distinction of concepts (substitution of concepts, their unjustified expansion or narrowing, use of a specific concept instead of a generic one and vice versa): The most high milk yield milk received from animals, calving in spring ( species concept cow replaced by generic animal), B Hippolyte Shalom embodied the best features working people ( Right V image Hippolyta Shalogo.).

Unmotivated omission of words often leads to distortion or obfuscation of the meaning of a statement and substitution of concepts. Yes, in a sentence Language Katerina is the most bright from everyone existing faces of "Thunderstorm" unjustified ellipsis leads to the comparison of incomparable concepts: language is compared with characters.

The reason for the substitution of concepts may also be speech redundancy: Name Tamara Ivanovna enjoys big authority among students ( It is not the name that enjoys authority, but Tamara Ivanovna herself).

The logic of speech is associated not only with the lexical level of the language system, but also with the syntactic organization of the utterance; it depends on the correct construction of sentences and coherent text as a whole. Logical speech is characterized by such an arrangement of words, sentences and their parts, which makes it possible to strictly consistently assimilate the expressed thought and does not allow inconsistencies or contradictions in its linguistic design.

One of the conditions for creating logical speech is the consistency of the combination of one word with another. Combining words within a statement that denote logically unrelated concepts leads to alogisms like slowly rush, cavalcade cars, sniper ether etc.

Ambiguity and ambiguity often arise as a result of incorrect construction of sentences with noun phrases in which genitive can have the meaning of both the subject and the object of the action ( call doctor, accusation comrade, invitation teachers, support friend etc.), as well as sentences with phrases in which case endings have different grammatical meanings ( help mothers, present daughters, Gratitude Maria etc.). Yes, statements Accusation comrade quite fair; Help mothers turned out to be How never By the way have a double meaning: accusation extended. And accusation presented comrade.; mother to someone helped And to her someone helped. A similar phenomenon is observed when using an addition in the form dative case V impersonal sentences: to the teacher I want wish.; to the student should answer.; to the director necessary advise. etc. (it is unclear: the teacher wants to wish something or is approached with a wish; whether the director himself should advise or someone should advise him).

Alogisms are common in speech, caused by unsuccessful construction of sentences with pronouns. Characterized by generality lexical meaning, pronouns in context are filled with a specific meaning m counting the words corresponding to them. Therefore, sentences must be constructed in such a way as to create clarity and certainty in the understanding of which word the pronoun refers to. So, in the statement IN urban registry office sleepy, obviously sick woman melted stove. Sparingly tucking wrinkled lips, she without all sorts of emotions contributed V book record registration our marriage ( B. Pikul) it is clear that the pronoun she refers to a noun woman, since both sentences are constructed in the same way: woman melted stove. - she contributed record. In the statement Tomorrow before schoolchildren will open up doors schools Rested for summer, They again sit down for desks as a result of the fact that the word doors not only turned out to be closer to the pronoun, but is also the subject, nonsense arose.

When using a reflexive pronoun myself and possessive his, her, their, mine Alogisms usually arise in cases where there are two subjects of action in a statement: Master said to the student repair his table ( whose table: masters or student!); Father suggested son hang portrait V his room ( in the son's or father's room?). Ambiguity can also arise in statements with one subject: Engineer said Polikarpov, What director urgently left V district committee And asked his leave to him mine project(asked the engineer or Polikarpov, leave it to the engineer or director?).

The cause of logical errors may be a violation syntactic connection in sentences containing phrases with prepositions despite on, instead of, except, besides, along with With etc. Turns with such prepositions, as a rule, are controlled by predicates: Instead of hats on on the go He allotment frying pan ( K. Chukovsky). Violation of this rule leads to a violation of semantic connections between parts of the statement: Besides promotion academic performance, students carried out big public work; Except work, He studies in absentia V Institute.

Certain logical requirements must be observed when constructing sentences with homogeneous members. Words that denote concepts that are particular, specific in relation to their common generic concept can be combined as homogeneous. In this case, it is necessary to comply with the requirement of a single basis when identifying them as species. For example: Children trained walking on skiing, skating on skating, sledding, bicycle, swimming (walking on skiing, skating on skating, sledding, bicycle, swimming - all this different types sports exercises); IN childhood boy was sick scarlet fever, measles, wind smallpox (scarlet fever, measles, wind smallpox - different types of childhood diseases). Failure to comply with the requirement of a single base of division leads to logical errors: For youth district was read row lectures on moral and ethical, family and household popular science And literary themes ( definitions moral and ethical, family and household literary characterize the content of lectures, and popular science - method of presentation).

Cannot unite as homogeneous members words denoting unrelated concepts: tell O veterans labor And school museum, interest To travel And birds. Each of the controlled words in the given examples is individually combined with a control word, but among themselves they have nothing in common in meaning, therefore they cannot be combined as homogeneous members. The combination of incompatible concepts into a homogeneous series is often (especially in fiction and journalism) used as stylistic device creating comedy or irony: But All should were retreat When appeared V her castle wounded hussar Colonel Burmin, With Georgiy V buttonhole And With interesting pallor, How talked locals there young ladies ( A. Pushkin); " Love And blue coat" ( this is the name of I. Shatunovsky’s feuilleton); “Mother-in-law and fawn” (title of Yu. Strelkov’s feuilleton).

Alogisms also arise as a result of combining words denoting generic and specific concepts as homogeneous members of a sentence: For last five year plan V area built two schools, hospital, club, cinema, cultural and educational institutions ( the concepts of “club” and “cinema” are included in the concept of “cultural and educational institutions”).

Words expressing overlapping concepts cannot be combined as homogeneous members of a sentence: parents And adults, young men And youth, children And schoolchildren. However, some combinations, contrary to the rules of logic, have become established in the language as normative: pioneers And schoolchildren, festival youth And students, art And literature etc.

When grouping homogeneous members of a sentence, combining them in pairs, words should be selected either on the basis of contiguity, similarity, or for stylistic purposes according to the principle of contrast: IN school He got carried away history And literature, physics And mathematics; They agreed. Wave And stone, // Poems And prose, ice And flame // Not so different between by myself ( A. Pushkin). Logically incorrectly constructed sentence IN subbotnik accepted participation adults And students, children And teachers. Homogeneous members in this case can be grouped as follows: adults And children, teachers And students.

An important condition for the logic of speech is the accurate and consistent expression by linguistic means of connections and relationships between parts of a sentence, as well as between individual sentences in the whole text. Lexical repetitions, pronouns, function words (prepositions, conjunctions), particles, introductory words and phrases ( Firstly, secondly, hence, Means etc.) must correspond to the nature of semantic relationships between parts of a sentence or individual sentences, emphasize the unity and consistency of thought, integrity of content, and specify the nature of the relationships between statements. Take, for example, the following excerpt from A. Chekhov’s story “The Lady with the Dog”:

Some month will pass And Anna Sergeevna, it seemed to him, would be covered in fog in his memory And Only occasionally will you dream of him with a touching smile, as others have dreamed of. But More than a month has passed, deep winter has arrived, A everything was clear in his memory, as if he had parted with Anna Sergeevna only yesterday. AND the memories flared up more and more.

Selected conjunctions link sentences into a single logically organized text, in which these sentences can only be arranged in this order. If you eliminate the conjunctions, the meaning of the passage will generally be preserved, but the logical-semantic relationships between them will weaken, and the unity of the text will be disrupted.

In the logical organization of written speech, the correct division of the text into paragraphs is very important. It contributes to the clear construction of statements, the unification of thoughts into micro-themes, and facilitates the perception of what is written.

The logic of speech is closely related to word order and intonation, i.e. with means of expressing the actual division of the utterance. The logic of the development of thought requires movement from the known to the unknown, the new. In speech, this logical pattern is manifested in the semantic division of the utterance into two components: theme (the starting point of the utterance, given, known from the previous context or situation) and rheme (the communicative center of the utterance, communicating something new). The theme is usually located at the beginning of the sentence and is emphasized by raising the tone, and the rheme is at the end and is emphasized by phrasal stress. Phrase stress can move from one word to another, emphasizing informatively significant component and accordingly giving different meaning to the statement. Compare sentences with the same syntactic structure: IN e h e r O m arrived brother - in the evening n r And e X A l brother - in the evening arrived b r A T. The order of words in a sentence is determined by the communicative task of the message: Golden rye (golden - definition, one-part sentence, nominative) - Rye golden (golden - predicate, two-part sentence). With different word orders, the meaning of the sentence and its communicative task are different: Poplar outgrown maple - Maple outgrown poplar.

When constructing a statement, it is necessary to ensure that the semantic connections between parts of sentences and individual sentences are not broken, the meaning is not distorted, and amphiboly does not arise. Poor word order makes it difficult to quickly perceive a thought; For example: Commission on philological faculty noted good preparation students; and in sentences like Paul Vlasov predicts death old I'm building With positions proletariat With his physical decrepitude leads to a distortion of meaning: it turns out that physical decrepitude is characteristic of the proletariat, and not the old system.

Logicality of speech is the compliance of the text with the laws of logic.

Types of logical speech:

Subject - correspondence to reality: I remember one work (I don’t remember its name), but I’ll tell you about it. There is a note of madness in Chatsky’s words, but this madness is deliberate and meaningful.

Conceptual - logical development of thought: The smoke of menthol cigarettes is a drunken stupor. Writers clearly understand the content of the meaning of their life's purpose.

Often, ignorance of the meaning of a word leads to illogicality and even absurdity of speech. For example, a sports commentator says: You see Gavrilov on the screen in a beautiful combination.

Speech intelligibility is determined mainly by the totality of the listener’s knowledge in the area to which the interlocutor’s speech belongs in its content. It also requires the listener to know the terminology and special figures of speech in this area. For example, a person will have great difficulty understanding speech in math topics, if he does not have knowledge of mathematical terms and special expressions and figures of speech used in this area.

The difficulty of understanding speech in many cases is due to the fact that words do not always have the same meaning for all people. They are often polysemantic, due to which it is possible to correctly grasp their meaning, which is meant in this case, only from the context of speech, i.e. from its general content and from the meaning of whole sentences, rather than individual words. For example, the word "root" for an ordinary person expresses the concept of a part of a tree, but for a mathematician it is a special numerical value.

Speech becomes more understandable when it is constructed, as far as possible, from short sentences when it's not overused special terms when its grammatical structure highlights the essence of the thought being presented, which is achieved by syntactically correct construction of sentences, as well as by the use of pauses in appropriate places or highlighting words using logical stress.

For example, the sentence “students of the institute physical culture won the skiing competition” can express different content and be understood differently, depending on which word the logical emphasis is placed on: in one case it will be about the fact that it was the students, and not someone else, who won, in another - that they won a skiing competition, not a gymnastics competition, etc.

21 Accuracy how a sign of speech culture is determined the ability to think clearly and clearly, knowledge of the subject of speech and the laws of the Russian language. Accuracy of speech is most often associated with accuracy of word use. The accuracy of word usage depends on how much the speaker knows the subject of speech, how erudite he is, whether he knows how to think logically, whether he knows the laws of the Russian language, its rules. Accuracy of speech is associated with the correct use of polysemantic words, synonyms, and homonyms. When selecting lexical means, it is recommended to take into account the following factors: the meaning of the word; its polysemy; compatibility with other words; emotionally expressive coloring; stylistic characteristics; scope of use; grammatical form.

Thus, the accuracy of speech is determined by: knowledge of the subject; logic of thinking; the ability to choose the right words.

Let's consider the situation: a student, taking an exam, makes an excuse: “I know this, but I can’t say it.”

Could this be possible? Some will say: “Yes. This could happen." However, the answerer only thinks that he knows. In reality, his information about the subject is fragmentary, unsystematic, and superficial. Probably when he was reading scientific literature, textbooks, listened to lectures, I did not master the basics of the subject, did not understand what its specifics were, what distinctive features. In this case, some fragmentary information remains in the memory, a vague idea, and the impression is created that you know, but just cannot say.

Others judge differently: “No! This can't happen. If a person understands the issue, has studied the subject well, then he will be able to talk about it.” Indeed, in order for speech to be accurate, you must constantly expand your horizons, delve deeper into the essence of the issue, try to understand in all the details what you are doing, studying or doing.

A careless attitude towards language can lead to misunderstanding, incorrect actions, conclusions, violation of speech ethics, and sometimes even to a quarrel.

For example, in Russian there are verbs go out, go down, get down, get out, go down. What action does each of them call? How do they differ in meaning? How to ask correctly: (on a boat) Are you at the next pier...?(by train) Are you at the next stop...?

When a steamship or boat moored to the pier, a gangplank was laid down and passengers walked along it. go. When you travel by train or electric train, you have to go down the steps. Therefore, it is customary to say: “I’ll go, you go.” In a bus, trolleybus, tram there is an entrance (back door) and an exit (front door), so those traveling on public transport enter and exit. However, we can also ask the question: “Are you getting off at the next stop?”, since in this case, too, you have to go down the steps.

The presence of variants in the language sometimes leads to scenes like this:

Are you getting off at the next stop?

You can only go crazy, and on the bus they ask: “Are you getting off at the next stop?”

Said it too! They only get down from the roof, from the tree. It is correct to say: “Are you going out?”

She's getting married. On the bus they say: “Are you getting up?”

Well, well! Yes, you are already standing, not sitting. Why ask if you are getting up?

Then stay on the bus if you don’t know Russian.

How do you explain who is right?

In the sentence “The owner closely monitors the cleanliness of his office” the word closely used without taking into account its inherent meaning in the language. Word close means "focused, tense."

They usually look at someone with concentration and intensity, that is, intently.

You can only monitor something carefully, doing something carefully, diligently, conscientiously.

The accuracy of speech is reduced by ignorance of the existence of paronyms and homonyms in the language, and the inability to neutralize these speech phenomena.

Paronyms These are words that are similar in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.

For example: addressee - addressee, escavator - escalator, quorum - forum, contract - contact, fact - factor, slip - unsubscribe, extracurricular - extraclassical.

Paronyms are also found among proper names: Eisenstein - Einstein, Capri - Cyprus, Sweden - Switzerland

The Austrian geographer Ludwig Krenek, recalling his stay in India, says: “We stopped calling ourselves Austrians a long time ago, because no one had any idea about Austria, and everyone immediately started talking about Australia.” In this case, the paronyms will be: Austria is Australia, Austrians are Australians.

The presence of paronyms in a language leads to the fact that in oral and written speech one word is used instead of another.

22 Purity of speech- this is the absence in it of unnecessary words and words that are alien to the literary language according to moral and ethical criteria.

Weed words are words that mean, so to speak, so, you understand, in principle, strictly speaking, you see, it’s clear, etc. Weed words do not express any meaning, but simply clog up speech, distract attention and tire. IN lately the word “as if” began to be used often. As if - this is a conjunction that means that the speaker doubts the credibility of something. As if = as if, as if. “It’s as if I didn’t come alone,” “It’s like I’m leaving on a business trip.” The conjunction “as if” is inappropriate in these sentences because it conflicts with the content of the phrases. Weed words appear unconsciously, due to anxiety, inability to think and immediately express your thoughts, due to the inability to select the right words.

Impaired speech clarity

All these groups of vocabulary are united by the fact that, as violators of “purity,” they are usually foreign, non-style inclusions in speech. In other words, in order for them to be regarded as a kind of “stains”, the “main fabric” of the text must be “clean”, i.e. so that the speech is based on the Russian literary language with stylistically neutral vocabulary. Otherwise - if the entire speech consists mainly of jargon - it will entirely be outside the boundaries of Russian literary language. To assess the admissibility or inadmissibility of using jargon, barbarisms and other already mentioned groups of vocabulary, it is important to determine the purpose for which they are included in speech, and from this position analyze whether each of the named methods of violating the purity of speech is a mistake or not. The functions of using these groups of vocabulary are so different that linguists sometimes differ significantly in assessing their role in language and speech. Let's look at the main groups of vocabulary that can clog up speech.

Richness of speech

The richness (diversity) of speech is determined by how many linguistic units (words, phraseological units) are in the speaker’s vocabulary, is created by using the maximum arsenal of means of influence, and indicates the speaker’s fluency in the capabilities of his native language.

The richness of speech is, firstly, determined by the number of words in the speaker’s vocabulary. Ellochka Shchukina made do with three dozen interjections, and Pushkin’s dictionary contains more than 21 thousand words. Not everyone can be Pushkin, but everyone should strive to be away from Ellochka. Lenin’s vocabulary contained more than 37 thousand words, the minimum is 4 thousand words, intelligent person should be 7-10 thousand words.

But the richness of speech is not only a large vocabulary. We often hear the speech of a person who has a sufficient vocabulary and erudition, but this does not make an impression on us, and - on the contrary - a person whose lexical arsenal is more than modest can make a great impression on listeners. The richness of speech is created largely through the appropriate use of aphorisms, quotes, proverbs, and knowledge of the meanings of polysemantic words. It is important to constantly take care of expanding your vocabulary, try to use the richness of your native language.

Expressiveness of speech

The expressiveness (beauty) of speech is a very multifaceted concept; it is a set of speech features that maintain the attention and interest of listeners. Expressiveness is based on richness and is achieved by using expressions in speech that avoid everyday life and unexpected turns.

It can be said that expressive speech- This is emotional speech. The speaker must influence not only the mind, but also the feelings and imagination of the listeners. The imagery and emotionality of speech enhance its effectiveness, contribute to its better perception, understanding and memorization, and provide aesthetic pleasure. But this statement can be refuted - unemotional speech can also be expressive, and a speaker who speaks in an even voice, without betraying his emotions, can make a greater impression than a joker and buffoon.

The expressiveness of speech, as well as its richness, is the fruit of a lot of work. Gustave Flaubert ensured that he did not repeat the same word even on adjacent pages; to achieve this, he rewrote each page 5–7 times. Only an impromptu that is carefully prepared is successful.

The expressiveness of speech is supported by special linguistic and speech means of expression, which include tropes and rhetorical figures. The purpose of these linguistic means is to make the thought more vivid, accurate, and memorable. It is known that a catchy phrase has a stronger effect on the listener than a deep thought. For example, the words of the poet N.A. are widely known. Nekrasova: “Follow the rule stubbornly: so that words are cramped, thoughts are spacious.” It’s beautifully said, but if you think about it carefully, this advice will seem strange: it’s cramped when there’s too much of something, but it’s spacious when there’s too little of something, i.e. It is recommended to write in such a way that there are fewer thoughts and more words.

A trope is an unusual use of one word, a figurative use of it that serves for decoration; a word or expression used in a figurative (indirect) meaning.

A rhetorical figure is an unusual turn of speech intended to decorate it and enhance the emotional impact on listeners; special ways constructing sentences and texts that enhance their expressiveness. If tropes are verbal imagery, then figures are syntactic imagery.

Figurative means of language

Imagery

Metaphor

Personification

Irony

Allegory

Metonymy

By comparison

Hyperbole

Litota

Periphrase

25 Rhetoric

(rhetoric) (ancient Greek ῥητωρική - “oratory” from ῥήτωρ - “orator”) - a philological discipline that studies the art of speech, the rules of construction artistic speech, oratory, eloquence. Originally the science of oratory, it was later sometimes understood more broadly as the theory of prose or the theory of argumentation.

Types of eloquence

Academic eloquence

Spiritual Eloquence

Political eloquence

Military eloquence

Judicial eloquence

Business eloquence

Related information.