The ancient Greeks created a unique type of civilization and culture, which became the starting point for the development of Western European society. In the East, under the pressure of civilization, man “turned into the wheel of a huge machine, in which he looked at himself as a speck of dust in front of the infinite. In Greece, he subjugated his institutions... used them to harmoniously develop his whole self; he could... combine in himself many heterogeneous talents so that none of them interfered with the other, be... a thinker and writer, without becoming a bookworm and an armchair recluse... worship his gods, without confining himself to dogmatic formulas, without bending under the tyranny of any superhuman force...” (I. Ten). Natural curiosity and the ability to capture the most subtle relationships and shades became the prerequisites for the extraordinary creative productivity of the ancient Greeks.

The uniqueness of the culture and character of an unusually gifted people was not least due to the geographical uniqueness of the Mediterranean. The beautiful, fertile nature and temperate climate contributed to the formation of the ancient Greeks’ desire for balance, the creation of certain and clear images, the cult of measure and harmony. The diversity of the landscape and natural resources, the sea and the coast, convenient for navigation, favored the development of trade and intensive cultural exchange, and the geographical autonomy of individual regions facilitated the formation of the polis system.

The culture of Ancient Greece went through several periods in its development: Crete-Mycenaean, or Aegean (3rd millennium - 12th century BC); royal, or Homeric (XI-VIII centuries BC); archaic (VII-VI centuries BC); classical (V - first third of the 4th century BC), Hellenistic (last two thirds of the 4th-1st centuries BC).

Let's try to highlight the most characteristics ancient Greek culture and civilization as a whole.

General characteristics of ancient Greek culture and civilization

Ancient Greek culture was formed on the basis of a specific civilization that intricately combined freedom and slavery. Slavery was not an ancient invention. However, in its development, ancient civilization increasingly moved away from the patriarchal form of slavery, and when it reached a mature form in the classical period, slaves became the main productive force of Greek society. But a free man and a slave in antiquity were not only economic and social subjects. It was among the Greeks that freedom first began to be understood as one of the highest values.

A distinctive feature of the Greek state system was that, despite close cultural and trade contacts, the policies (city-states) had economic and political independence. The economic basis of the ancient city-state was the exchange of agricultural products; many townspeople were land owners. Crafts and shipping also developed intensively. The ancient polis was a political, trade, economic, religious and artistic center. The main cultural buildings were located around the main city square - the agora.

Ancient Greece knew such forms of political government as the power of kings, the supremacy of the aristocracy and tyranny. However, it was democracy that became the immortal creation of Greek civilization, which determined its originality and to which progressive figures of modern European culture later turned their attention. Ancient democracy was the first attempt in history to implement the ideal of equal participation of people in government, regardless of their social and property status. But it was limited in nature, since citizenship was a privilege, albeit quite broad, but still not for all layers of society. Ancient Greek democracy did not interfere with the establishment of the institution of slavery or the colonization of foreign lands, but softened the bonds of slavery.

The Greeks were convinced that man is a political being. “In the eyes of this people, only two activities distinguished a man from cattle and a Greek from a barbarian: interest in public grandfathers and the study of philosophy” (I. Ten). The life of a Greek had a value of 0 meaning, primarily in connection with his service to the polis. Despite the great importance of the personal principle, the main value remained “community”. The policy comprehensively regulated the lives of citizens and at the same time was completely controlled by them. Polis consciousness determined and moral ideals the Greeks, who, being on the rise, most valued such qualities as duty, honor, glory.

The opposition between sensuality and thinking was just emerging in antiquity, and we can talk about the dominance in Ancient Greece of a synthetic worldview, where feelings and reason were in harmonious unity. Such a balance led to the fact that the earthly, sensual things were distanced from revelry and depravity, but at the same time they were not destroyed in the name of purely spiritual ideals. The guarantor of maintaining the desired harmony was the will. The ability to control one's feelings and behavior became an important trait of the Greek character.

However, alongside the desire to subordinate feelings to the will, to order the world, coexisted the desire to go beyond the aesthetically complete structures of existence and achieve the emancipation necessary for the mental and creative restructuring of the personality. This side of ancient Greek culture is associated primarily with the cults of Demeter and Dionysus. The outlined contrasts in the worldview and life leadership of the ancient Greeks were characterized by the German philosopher F. Nietzsche as the Apollonian (rational) and Dionysian (sensual) principles of ancient culture.

Nature has endowed this enterprising people with an inquisitive mind. The Greeks were masters of precise formulation, clear construction, convincing argument, inventors of the art of speech and argument, geniuses of rhetoric and dialectics. They separated the intellectual sphere from both religion and Everyday life. They were interested in knowledge in itself, often regardless of its practical applicability. The Greeks have a special ability to extract maximum heuristic possibilities from reasoning and mental operations with minimal recourse to experience. It is no coincidence that Greek protoscience was theoretical in nature.

The Greeks, like no other people, had the desire to express even the most abstract idea in a visible, tactile image (“eidetic” property). Greek spiritual culture was plastic, bodily in nature, focused on identifying the form of existence of things. This can explain the flowering of ancient Greek plastic arts and stereometry, and the emergence of natural philosophy. The Greeks admired the human body, but it was a cult of the harmonious, healthy body, which was organically combined with the spiritual perfection and volitional activity of the individual citizen. The body is not only volumetric plasticity of muscles, but also proud posture, a majestic gesture. Physical culture, shaping the body, was the most important part of education. Numerous gymnasiums with halls and baths were considered as important public buildings. Admiring the human body inspired the creation of works of art and filled leisure time (sports shows).

Interest in form was clearly evident in ancient Greek art. For example, painters did not depict space itself, but figures in space. In architecture, the external appearance of the temple prevailed over the interior.

The cult of moderation and harmony permeated the entire Greek worldview. The Greeks considered the universe to be a purposeful whole, an internally ordered system that denies chaos. In their view, man fit harmoniously into the picture of the cosmos and was commensurate with nature. This attitude towards the surrounding world gave ancient Greek culture an important point of universal support: creative creative energy was directed towards understanding and increasing the harmony of the universe. It is no coincidence that the leading aesthetic categories among the Greeks were beauty, measure, and harmony. Hence - the proportionality of the parts of a work of art, the obligatory presence of a central point, the symmetrical arrangement and consistency of the main parts and additional details, visibility of dimensions, the organic unity of all elements, a sense of style.

The category of measure was important in ethics. According to the principle of the “golden mean” formulated by Aristotle, any behavior that violates the measure is deviant. The philosopher equally condemned cowardice and recklessness, stinginess and extravagance, timidity and shamelessness.

The equality and creative inclinations of the citizens of the policies, constantly fighting for influence, predetermined such a feature of Greek culture as agonism (competitiveness). Athletes competed during sports games, choirs and poets argued for victory, and orators achieved primacy in the art of eloquence. The dispute-competition was practiced in philosophical dialogues Plato. In art, one can trace the struggle for the palm of primacy between various schools and individual artists. Agonality contributed to the delimitation of personal opinion and the formation of an individual approach (B. R. Vipper). Greek culture paid much more attention to the individual than Eastern culture.

The typological features of ancient Greek culture and civilization listed above were uniquely refracted in different periods of its development, to the analysis of which we turn.

9.1. Features of the formation of ancient culture.

9.2. Features of the culture of Ancient Greece.

9.3. Culture of the Hellenistic era.

9.4. Culture of Ancient Rome.

9.5. Ancient art.

Features of the formation of ancient culture

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, the leading role in social development passed from ancient Eastern civilizations to a new cultural center that arose in the Mediterranean and was called ancient civilization. Ancient civilization includes the history and culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. This civilization is based on qualitatively different socio-economic and political principles than the civilization of the East and turned out to be significantly dynamic from them.

Antiquity is the cultural and historical foundation of modern Europe. The enormous cultural heritage of ancient Greece and Rome is rightly considered the cradle of European civilization. It was the ancient world that laid the foundations of European philosophical, legal, political, artistic and scientific systems that emerged much later.

Greco-Roman culture is traditionally called ancient; it developed during the period from III thousand BC to midday V century AD The era of antiquity begins with the formation of Greek city-states at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC and ends with the fall of the Roman Empire in the century AD.

In its development, ancient culture went through a number of stages and appeared in various historical modifications, represented by the culture of Ancient Greece, Hellenistic culture, and the culture of Ancient Rome. At the same time, the “prelude” of ancient culture was the even more ancient Cretan-Mycenaean culture, or the Aegean civilization, which existed simultaneously with the ancient Eastern cultures. The centers of this Aegean civilization were Crete and the city of Mycenae in southern Greece.

Despite the significant differences between the culture of Ancient Greece, Hellenistic and Roman, they belong to the same historical and cultural complex and have a number of general typological features. This is due, first of all, to the fact that the ancient Greek and ancient Roman cultures were formed on the basis of basically similar forms of social organization: both the ancient Greek polis and the Roman “civitas” of the Republic era represent various options antique civil community.

The civil community united full-fledged free citizens, each of whom had the right to land ownership and to participate in solving state issues. This form of organization of social life determined the scale of basic values ​​of ancient society:

Ideal the primary importance of the civil community as the basis of the good of an individual;

Idea the supreme power of the people;

Focus on earthly interests; in the ancient worldview there is no idea of ​​a creator god, stands outside the world and establishes a permanent, eternal world and social order (as was the case in eastern peoples);

Unlike the cultures of the East with their theocentrism, ancient culture is addressed to man, who is the focus of philosophy and art.

The social consciousness of the ancient polis was mainly rational in nature. The world was perceived as real, although it was recognized supernatural, and this had a significant impact on different sides life. Therefore, when characterizing ancient culture, it is necessary to analyze the religious ideas of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

Features of the culture of Ancient Greece

Culture Ancient Greece is the source of ancient culture. The ancient Greeks created a culture that was later called the "Greek miracle." Almost every conquest of Greek culture reached such heights that it formed the basis for many aspects of European culture in its most diverse spheres. For our time, Greek culture is a model of humanism and a complete view of the world. This was due to many circumstances.

Significant influence on the cultural characteristics of Greece is of little benefit geographical position, which contributed to the development of trade and other external relations. One of the special reasons that determined the development of Greek culture was colonization and the associated trade. Colonization gave the Greeks the opportunity to acquire a new view of the world, different from their primitive beliefs, and to compare their world and the world of other peoples.

The dynamism and greatness of ancient culture cannot be separated from the dynamism public life. By the VIII - VI centuries. BC. includes the formation of slaveholding states-policies. The Greeks considered the absence of poleis among other peoples a feature of barbarism, their moral underdevelopment (Aristotle). For the Greeks, living like a human being meant living in a polis, participating in polis life. Slaves who did not have the right to participate in the life of the policy were not considered people.

There were several hundred policies on the territory of Ancient Greece. On average, each of them occupied an area of ​​no more than 300 square kilometers and had approximately 10-15 thousand people. One of the largest policies in Athens.

In the ancient classical polis the state is the real and only content of the life and freedom of a citizen, it was almost the only place where he felt in danger, was under the protection of the gods who were in charge of the city (such as Pallas Athena - Athens) and could live a full life. Polis life with its spiritual and economic autarky, independence and freedom were the highest value for a citizen, since the polis was the main condition of his own freedom and could guarantee the protection of his civil rights and property interests. Public opinion and holiday laws protected public interests and the conquest of personal interests by the public was mandatory. One of the most important criteria for society’s evaluative attitude towards an individual was the degree of his participation in public life. Public opinion has developed a contemptuous attitude towards the indifference of the individual to the events of public life. This contempt has become so important factor the relationship of society to the individual, that, relying on public opinion, the Athenian ruler Solon formulated a rare law in world history, according to which anyone who did not support either side during the uprising was declared dishonest and deprived of citizenship rights. The law required every citizen to participate in the struggle, and not wait for others to decide the fate of the state. And therefore, for a polis individual, a terrible punishment was expulsion from his hometown, what the Romans called “deprivation of fire and water,” that is, deprivation of civil rights. In Greek cities, a special procedure of ostracism was developed for this purpose - sending into exile persons who did not violate the laws, but were dangerous due to their influence.

In many city-states and, above all, in Athens, the majestic achievements of the culture of the ancient Greeks arise - democracy. At the origins of democracy in Athens was Solon, whose reforms were aimed at creating a society of humanism and justice in Athens. The main governing body in the policy was the general meeting. At other times, the leadership was carried out by the council of 400, and then by the council of 500. Features public organization Greek society influenced customs, traditions, moral standards and even art.

An open discussion at the people's assembly of laws led to the de-sacralization of social institutions and thinking, shaped the “uninhibitedness” of the Greek spirit, the development of critical reflection, and rationalism. You need to familiarize yourself with a detailed description of the main features of polis life at the work of J.-P. Vernan "The Spiritual World of the Polis".

Competitive spirit polemical (agonistic) is another important feature of Greek culture. It manifested itself in all kinds of competitions - sports Olympiads, competitions of poets, musicians, artists, gladiator fights, public competitions of speakers and philosophical discussions of sages, in the turbulent political life of ancient society. For a Greek and a Roman there was nothing honorable than to become a winner in any competition, to receive the approval and admiration of the citizens and to receive Laurel wreath. The competitive nature of ancient Greek culture is discussed in more detail in the work of F.Kh. Cassidy "On the problem of the Greek miracle."

High rating associated with this creativity in the activities of the individual. The struggle of opinions and freedom of criticism became the ideological and spiritual atmosphere in which Greek science and philosophy were born.

According to some European theorists, for example, Lévi-Strauss, human behavior can be determined by its main motivation. It could be a “culture of shame” or a “culture of guilt.” The culture of guilt is characteristic mainly of Christianity, that is, it is addressed to the voice of conscience, to internal judgment over oneself. The culture of shame is focused on the assessment of human behavior by representatives of one or another social group. The “culture of shame” of the situation in Greece included two elements: the idea of piety Hellina and sense of competition. The main motives of behavior were imitation of the best and competition. The Greeks are not yet characterized by a sense of internal sinfulness, but expressed feeling shame before fellow citizens. The second side of this was the desire to become first, to become the best. The spirit of competition reigned in the field of science, rhetoric, in sports, even at the general meeting. Any member of the policy could express his opinion when discussing public problems. An important feature of the mentality of the Athenian citizen is the desire for glory. For example, victory at the Olympic Games was considered a victory not of an individual, but of a polis. For the Greeks, this served as confirmation of their importance to society. All the features of the relationship between citizens of the Greek polis brought up special feeling patriotism.

In Greek mythology human and anthropoid gods. Therefore, among the various mythologies of the world, Greek has become the most attractive. Greek Olympic religion anthropomorphic. Gods often behave like mere mortals, so people felt quite comfortable in the world of the Olympic religion.

Ancient Greek culture is characterized by great achievements in the field Sciences. Despite the seriousness of the scientific achievements of others early cultures, for example Egypt or China, no systematic science arose there. In the Greek world knowledge has ceased to be sacred, sacred, mysterious, which would belong only to a special caste of people - priests. It became available to everyone who decided to devote their life to it. Moreover, the “culture of shame” did not encourage ignorance, stupidity and vanity. It is in Greece that the transition from mythology and religious worldview was based on faith in science, which required formulation, formulation, logical consideration of problems, and the mind becomes the main means of knowledge. Depth and thoughtfulness scientific theories, no matter how intelligible they may look, formed the basis for many applied and theoretical sciences. Truth is not a matter of blind faith, but knowledge, based on logic, on reasonable (rational) understanding. Philosophy became such a new way of self-determination of a person in ancient society - a fundamentally different type of worldview, based on the positions of the mind and intellect. Philosophy offered man a new type of self-determination - not through habit and tradition, but through his own mind. Becoming one of the forms of overcoming the individual’s dependence on the clan, it for the first time calls on a person to believe in himself, in his own strength, and not in mythological gods. The myths existing among the people are subject to revision from the standpoint of reason, they are given a rational interpretation.

The period of the highest flowering of Greek culture (5th century BC) is associated with the highest flowering of polis life and all other cultural phenomena.

Ancient Greek culture has a special place in creating the foundation of European culture. The ancient Greeks laid the foundations of modern science, philosophy, historiography, architecture, visual arts, literature and theater. Their important contribution to world culture was the creation for the first time in history of a new type of public organization - democratic civil society, within which social and spiritual preconditions have developed harmonious development free man. Within this culture there were laid spiritual foundations of European culture: humanistic worldview, affirmation of the value of earthly existence, rationalistic attitude to the world, ideas about beauty as one of the highest values, the ideal of a perfect harmoniously developed personality, democratic relations between society and the individual, the idea of ​​self-affirmation in the process of competition between equal people, etc.

At the end of the 4th century. BC. Greece is subjugated by Macedonia, and the conquests of Alexander the Great mark the beginning new era in the evolution of ancient culture - Hellenistic.

In this lesson you will learn about the cultural life of Ancient Greece. Many people around the world are attracted by the beauty of the Athens Acropolis, the Parthenon and Erechtheion temples, ancient greek sculpture. To this day, theaters stage plays based on stories staged back in the ancient Greek theater. The Olympic Games are still held, and the philosophy of ancient Greek thinkers is studied in universities. In this lesson you will immerse yourself in the world of beauty and get acquainted with ancient Greek culture

Rice. 2. Goddess Athena ()

Rice. 3. Goddess Hera ()

Concerning literature, then this direction in Greece was not very developed. Greek literature usually begins with Homer (Fig. 4), from his poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey". To this day, it is not entirely known when and under what circumstances these poems were created. There are many theories about this. Some generally deny the very fact of the existence of Homer as a single person who brought together all the numerous stories and songs. Literature developed mainly in poetic direction. There were works by the poet Alcaeus, the poetess Sappho, and Pindar wrote odes. Reached great development oratory in the speeches of such political figures as Lysias, Demosthenes, Isocrates. Many of the speeches of these authors have survived to this day. A special part of Greek literature is dramaturgy. Those plays that were written by the creators of Greek tragedies and comedies. Father Greek tragedy, the playwright Aeschylus was considered from Eleusis (Fig. 5). His works are considered the first dramatic works in the history of mankind. Two of them : "Prometheus Bound" and "Persians" are the most popular works of ancient Greek drama, they continue to be staged to this day. Drama was used not only to entertain people, but also to impart certain character traits, to educate them in a certain way. The plays were supposed to be educational and patriotic in nature. The successors of Aeschylus were Sophocles and Euripides. A small part of the plays written by these authors has reached us. For example, from the works of Euripides, 18 plays out of 92 that he wrote have reached us.

Rice. 4. Poet Homer ()

Rice. 5. Father of Greek tragedy - Aeschylus ()

There was such a genre of drama in Greece as comedy. But comedy was considered a low and unworthy genre. However, the comedian Aristophanes turned out to be so popular that his works have survived to this day. 2 and a half thousand years ago, the Greeks laughed at corrupt politicians, at stupid citizens, at women who tried to try on the roles of men, at those things that we laugh at to this day.

The spread of literacy in Greece was not universal, but the majority of free Greeks were literate. This was justified by the fact that alphabetic writing was much easier to master than hieroglyphs. The Greek alphabet became the basis for both the Cyrillic alphabet, which we use today, and the Latin alphabet.

It was at this time that first libraries. For example, the Greek tyrant owned a library Pisistratus, who ruled in Athens in the second half of the 6th century. BC e. At the end of the 4th century BC. e. appeared first public library.

As for the ancient Greek architecture, then much has not reached us. But the Greeks had a tradition of making small clay models of temples. Therefore, we can imagine what a Greek temple of the 9th or 8th century BC looked like. e. It has survived to this day, even if in a dilapidated form. Temple of Hera, located near Corinth, which dates back to the 9th century BC. e.

Greek architecture very quickly acquired a stylistic focus. In the 7th century BC. e. the first pan-Greek style emerges, called Doric. Subsequently, two more arise architectural style: Ionic and Corinthian. If you compare these styles with each other, you will notice how quickly architectural thought is developing in Greece, how the proportion of buildings is changing. The Greeks very quickly begin to understand what the golden ratio is and how to build a building so that it appears taller, even if in reality it is not very tall. Unfortunately, the main monuments of this era have not reached us completely. On the Acropolis of Athens in the central part of the city you can only see ruins Parthenon (Fig. 6), Erechtheion (Fig. 7) and other temples that were built in the 5th century BC. e. between the Greco-Persian and Peloponnesian Wars. But even in this version, these temples make an indelible impression.

Rice. 6. Parthenon Temple ()

Rice. 7. Erechtheion Temple ()

Temples needed to be decorated. In Greece, such a branch of culture arises as sculpture. Initially, statues of gods were erected. It was customary to depict people as static, without movement, but very quickly the Greeks, thanks to their good knowledge of anatomy, began to move to depicting human figures in dynamics. Not everything has survived to this day, but only a small part. Many sculptures survive only in Roman copies. But even the fragments of statues are still valued by art historians as a great value.

We do not know all the creators of Greek statues by name. But many names have survived to this day. Famous sculptor Miron, his most famous statue is Discus thrower (Fig. 8). Another statue by Myron was installed on the Acropolis - Athena and Marsyas (Fig. 9). If we talk about other sculptors of that time, he is famous Phidias, author of the famous Athena-maidens for the Parthenon. A huge 12-meter statue, whose body is made of ivory, and clothes and weapons are made of hammered gold sheets on a wooden base. It belonged to him Zeus statue, installed in Olympia, the height of the statue is 14 meters. This statue has not survived to this day; according to one version, it sank while the Romans were transporting it to their territory. Among other statues of Pheidias, one can name the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon. This sculptural decoration illustrates the myth of the birth of the goddess Athena and her dispute with Poseidon for power over Attica. About 500 figures that were originally depicted on this pediment have survived to this day, although they have survived in fragments.

Rice. 8. Discus thrower, sculptor Miron ()

Rice. 9. Athena and Marsyas, sculptor Myron ()

Speaking about other sculptors, we can name Polykleitos from Argos. The image of a citizen of the polis is embodied in the statue he created Doryphoros or spearman, which was the canon and model for sculptors of later eras. You can also highlight the sculptor Leohara, who owns the bronze Apollo statue. A marble Roman copy of this statue, found in the 15th century, is kept in the Belvedere of the Vatican Palace. That's why the statue got its name Apollo Belvedere.

It was in Ancient Greece that the science of history originated. Her father is considered Herodotus (Fig. 10), but even before him there were people who compiled small descriptions of the life of their states. Such historians - logographers - provided a lot of material for the work of Herodotus and for the works of later historians. Also considered the father of history Thucydides, he was the first to apply the critical method: to separate what was factual from obvious fiction. The works of Herodotus and Thucydides were continued by the historian Xenophon, whose work "Greek History" describes the events that took place in Greece at the very end of the Peloponnesian War and at the beginning of the 4th century BC. e.

Rice. 10. Father of history - Herodotus ()

What makes Greek culture especially valuable to us is Greek philosophy. It was in this region that philosophy was born as a special form of knowledge, combining all branches of science that could be known to the Greeks at that time. It was in Greece that such a system as teaching philosophy first appeared. People who taught how to think and speak correctly were called sophists. Similar schools existed in many Greek cities. From the schools that existed in the 5th century BC. e., was of particular importance school of socrates, which was located in Athens. From this school came the wisest Greek of his time - Plato. Plato himself could be called a sophist; he was a paid teacher of philosophy. The school he created was named Academy (Fig. 11). It was Plato's Academy that was the first general educational institution in ancient times. It was created at the beginning of the 4th century BC. e. and survived not only Ancient Greece, but even Ancient Rome and was closed only in the 6th century AD. e. during the era of the Byzantine emperors.

Rice. 11. Plato Academy ()

Heir and student of Plato - Aristotle (Fig. 12) - created own school, which received the name Lyceum, otherwise lyceum. It did not exist for long, but gave its name to educational institutions that exist to this day in many countries, including Russia. Aristotle is also important because he began to separate philosophy from scientific knowledge, which is more accurate and demonstrative. The history writing of many modern sciences begins with the history of Aristotle, with the works that he wrote. He can be considered not only the founder of biology and physics, but also of chemistry, climatology, political science, and sociology. He wrote works on the most different areas knowledge, which subsequently developed into separate sciences. Aristotle is also famous for his work "Athenian Polity", this is a work on the history and state structure of Athens, but it has reached us in incomplete form. But the generalizing work of Aristotle, "Policy", reached us. The thoughts and theories put forward by Aristotle were very relevant.

Rice. 12. Aristotle ()

It is difficult to overestimate the importance that Greek culture had in the history of mankind. To this day, people continue to look at the statues created by Greek sculptors and standing in many museums around the world. We can admire architectural monuments that have reached us through the centuries. To this day, theaters stage those works that were written 2 and a half thousand years ago and study scientific works, created by Greek authors. The Olympic Games, which each of you has seen, continue to be held to this day.

Bibliography

1. Akimova L. The Art of Ancient Greece. - St. Petersburg, “ABC Classics”, 2007.
2. Boardman J. Material culture archaic Greece, in the book: The Cambridge History ancient world. Vol. III, part 3: Expansion of the Greek world. - M.: Ladomir, 2007.
3. Whipper B.R. Art of Ancient Greece. - M., 1971.
4. Volobuev O.V. Ponomarev M.V., General history for grade 10. - M.: Bustard, 2012.
5. Klimov O.Yu., Zemlyanitsin V.A., Noskov V.V., Myasnikova V.S. General history for 10th grade. - M.: Ventana-Graf, 2013.
6. Kumanetsky K. History of culture of Ancient Greece and Rome / Transl. from Polish VC. Ronina. - M.: graduate School, 1990.
7. Rivkin B.I. Ancient art. - M., 1972.

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2. Arx.novosibdom.ru ().
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4. Studbirga.info().
5. Biofile.ru ().

Homework

1. What special features are characteristic of Greek culture of the archaic and classical eras?
2. Tell us about religion in Ancient Greece.
3. What architectural monuments and sculptures do you remember most?
4. Tell us about the development of scientific thought in Ancient Greece.

Greece, The Greek Parliamentary Republic is a state in Southern Europe on the Balkan Peninsula and numerous islands in the Ionian, Mediterranean and Aegean Seas. Area – 132 thousand sq. km.

Population: 10.66 million people

Highest point: Olympus (2917 m.)

Official language: Greek.

Currency: Drachma. 1000 drachmas = 4.83 rubles.

Head of state: president, elected by parliament for a 5-year term.

Legislative body: unicameral parliament (300 deputies elected for a term of 4 years).

Exports: bauxite, nickel, manganese, tobacco, raisins, olives, olive oil, citrus fruits, cotton, industrial products, cement.

Import: machinery and equipment, petroleum products, mineral raw materials, consumer goods, food.

Trading partners: Germany, Italy, USA, France, Saudi Arabia.

GNP per capita: US$8,360.

Borders: in the north with Macedonia and Bulgaria, in the northeast and along the Aegean Sea with Turkey, in the northwest with Albania.

About 80% of the territory of Greece is mountainous. The climate is Mediterranean subtropical, with mild wet winters and dry hot summers. The average temperature in January is +4…+12 C, in July + 25…+27 C; In winter, snow lies only in the mountains in the north of the country. Precipitation on the plains is 400 - 700 mm, in the mountains - up to 1500 mm per year,

There are no large rivers in Greece, the largest are Alyakmon, Pinies, Aheloos - no more than 500 km in length.

Due to thousands of years of development of the territory, the natural vegetation is poorly preserved. Forests and shrubs occupy only 20% of the territory. Agricultural lands occupy almost 70% of the area of ​​Greece (27% are arable lands, 41% are pastures).

In the 1st millennium BC. and 1st floor. 1 thousand AD The ancient Hellenic civilization flourished in Greece, leaving us traces of a rich culture. In the second half. 1 thousand n. e. and in the early Middle Ages, Greece was part of Byzantium. In 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople and by the end of the 17th century, Greece was completely conquered by them: continental Greece was part of the Turkish eyalet of Rumelia. In 1774, Greek ships were given the opportunity to sail under the Russian flag, and a significant part of Russian Black Sea trade was in the hands of the Greeks. With the assistance of Russia and under its patronage, the Greek Republic of the Seven Mediterranean Islands was created in 1800 on the Ionian Islands. In 1821 – 1822 A national liberation revolution began in continental Greece, and after Turkey’s defeat in the war with Russia (1828–1829), Greece was granted autonomy. In February 1830, by decision of three powers - Russia, England, France - Greece officially became an independent state with a monarchical form of government. But part of the Greek territory still remained under Turkish rule, and only in 1864 - 1881. The Ionian Islands, part of Thessallia, and in 1912-1913 were transferred to Greece. she received Aegean Macedonia, Crete. In World War II, the Greek government declared neutrality, but fascist Italy presented it with an ultimatum and tried to conquer Greece. The Greek army expelled the interventionists, but on April 6, 1941, German troops landed in the country and soon occupied its entire territory. B1941 – 1944 The Greek people waged a continuous partisan struggle against the invaders and in October 1944 they completely liberated the country.

Today's Greece is a presidential republic, with legislative power vested in a unicameral parliament. The country is divided into 51 districts (nomes) and a special administrative unit - Aion Oros (Holy Mount Athos); The nomes are grouped into 13 regions.

The population is about 10.7 million people, about 96% of them are Greeks. Small groups of Macedonians, Turks, Albanians and Aromanians live in the north of the country. The official language is Greek. 97% of believers are Orthodox.

Greece is an industrial-agrarian country, inferior in size and level of its economy to the most developed European countries. Gross domestic product is $203 billion. (about 19 thousand dollars per capita). The basis of the industry, which accounts for 23% of GDP, is made up of light and food industry enterprises, the products of which (carpets, clothes, shoes, olive oil, juices, wines) Greece imports to many countries of the world. In Northern Europe and Russia, Greek fur coats made from natural fur are very popular - a very specific product for a country where the temperature is above zero all year round. The mining industry is developed: coal, bauxite, pyrites, nickel ores, bentonite, and marble are mined. Shipping plays a big role in the Greek economy: this small country has almost 160 ports. Agriculture contributes 8% of GDP. Fruits, vegetables, grapes, tobacco, and world-famous Greek olives are grown here; and besides them, traditional crops for Europe - wheat, corn, barley, cotton.

Almost 10 million people visit Greece every year, which is almost equal to the population of the country. Tourists are attracted by the charming Greek islands, with traces of ancient cultures, and especially by the capital of the country.

Athens is located on the Attica peninsula, near the shores of the Aegean Sea, on a hilly plain irrigated by the rivers Kifisos and Ilisos. 8 km. from Athens there is Piraeus - a seaport merged with the capital. The city already existed in the Mycenaean era (16th -12th centuries BC). In 1896, the first games of the renewed Olympics took place in Athens. The combination of great monuments of antiquity with monuments of the Byzantine Middle Ages and modern buildings gives Athens a unique appearance. The Acropolis rock with the Parthenon, the Areopagus and Pnyx hills - the centers of social and political life of Ancient Athens (built in the 5th century BC) - are the most famous parts of the city. Among the buildings of antiquity, the Temple of Zeus is also famous.

Now the city has about 770 thousand inhabitants. It is the largest political, cultural and economic center of the country. About 2.3 of Greece's industrial production is concentrated here (metallurgy, mechanical engineering, oil refining; textile, leather and footwear, clothing and food industries.

Greece is rightly called the cradle of European civilization. The country has many cultural monuments, most of which date back to the mid-19th century. was hidden underground. Only after 1870 archaeologists have managed to recreate a clear and comprehensive picture of the history and culture of Greece. In Athens there is the Acropolis - a symbol of Greek civilization, the temple of the goddess Athena - the Parthenon, which is considered the most perfect structure of Greek antiquity (442 - 438 BC), the Temple of Erechtein, the Theater of Dionysus. A very special feeling of contact with ancient culture arises in the cities of the ancient world - Delphi, Thebes, Eleusis. In Knossos there is a labyrinth with the throne of King Minos - the largest structure of the ancient Minoan culture. The myth of the labyrinth of the Minotaur is associated with the palace (the cult of the sacred bull was indeed widespread in Crete). In the middle of a valley in northern Thessaly rises the sacred Mount Olympus, which the ancient Greeks considered the kingdom of Zeus. In its vicinity, rivers and springs are named ancient gods, since the entire territory around Olympus is considered part of the divine domain. Since ancient times, these places were described by the greatest poets of antiquity: Homer, Herodotus, Eucripides, Demosthenes, etc.

The works of outstanding ancient Greek scientists and thinkers formed the basis of many modern fields of knowledge.

In the area of ​​Mount Athos there are shrines Christendom, the Athonite Monastic Republic was created, governed by the “Holy Council”: along the entire length of the 50-kilometer peninsula there are unique monasteries, which are the spiritual centers of Christianity. Founded in the 4th century. The republic also had a great influence on the organization of Russian monasticism. In the past there were 40 monasteries here, where more than 4 thousand monks lived. Now only 20 operate, and the number of monks has decreased to 1,700 people. Only men are allowed to enter the territory, and an application from the Greek authorities is required; Entry visa for 4 days is issued only to professors of theology, history and philosophy.

The inhabitants of Greece (this is especially noticeable in small towns and villages) are a courageous, proud and hospitable people. However, it should be remembered that a return invitation is required. Life here is peculiar; people do not always adhere to the rules familiar to foreigners. For example, the level of service in restaurants will improve dramatically if you walk into the kitchen and establish personal contact with the staff.

As a rule, Greeks are individualists who do not accept rigid norms of behavior and restrictions; Drivers often ignore traffic rules, and in last years Thefts in houses and on the streets have become more frequent. Unemployment in

everyday life is not particularly noticeable thanks to the regime of the so-called “parallel economy”. The main thing in the life of a Greek is most often the family, where the head is the father, who decides all issues. By tradition, older people in the family live together with younger ones. IN free time young people gather in cafeterias or discos (the law on drugs is very strict), and older people, especially in small villages, go to the nearest bar to play cards or backgammon, or just watch TV. They are reluctant to play sports, but they “support” their favorite teams desperately. They tend to spend their weekends in nature. Children, both their own and those of others, are treated like kings. It is not recommended to refuse treats in village houses, as well as to speak ironically about Greece and the Greeks.

There are many holidays in Greece, local and national, which are very spectacular. These are festivals and theatrical performances, such as the festival of folk music and dance, Greek song and Greek cinema; in Macedonia there is a day when men and women switch roles; in Airos - Nikolaos on Easter they burn an effigy of Judas and others on the lake.

Greece is an industrial-agrarian country with an average level of development. She is characterized by high degree employment in the non-productive sector (over 50% of GNP). Since the early 80s, the country has been in crisis. The main burden of the economic crisis in the country fell on the shoulders of Greek workers, who do not put up with this situation and are intensifying the struggle in defense of their fundamental vital interests.

The culture of ancient Greece, otherwise called ancient, is diverse. It is difficult to find a type of art in which the Hellenes, that is, the Greek people, have not left their mark. And this trace is very noticeable; no other people has yet managed to achieve such enormous success in various spheres of culture as the Greeks once achieved.

Much was inherited by the Hellenes from neighboring eastern peoples. The influence of Egypt and Babylon on the culture of ancient Greece is quite noticeable, however, the Greeks did not copy examples of art, they only took them as a basis, which they brought to the classical ideal. This ideal is still relevant today, ancient culture still serves as a role model, it seems that time has no power over it at all. And how could it be otherwise, because when creating sculptures, poems, buildings, and even philosophical treatises, the ancient Greeks proceeded from general concepts, such as “beauty” and “goodness”. In such works, the human body was elevated to cult, the athletic figure was perceived as something almost divine, something that cannot deserve attention, because it is beautiful in itself.

Aegean period of culture of ancient Greece

The entire culture of ancient Greece is conventionally divided into several stages. The first is Aegean, sometimes called Crete-Mycenaean or Minoan. Architecture and sculpture are most widely developed here. The most striking monuments of this stage are the Mycenaean and Knossos palaces, which have survived to this day in their original form. However, this does not diminish their significance for understanding the general patterns of construction of that time. The second castle, among other things, testifies to contemporaries about the veracity of one of the myths of ancient Greece - about Theseus and the Minotaur. Having carried out excavations, archaeologists were convinced that the events described were not fiction, and actually took place. The scale of the palace is amazing; the preserved first floor of the building has more than 300 rooms. The presence of a water supply and sewerage system is also surprising.

During the Minoan period, numerous crafts actively developed, bronze was melted down, and special attention was paid to the art of ceramics. The sculptures, figurines and intricately decorated vases that have come down to us, dating back to this stage of the development of ancient Greece, testify to the filigree skill of the Hellenes. Skillfully sculpted details create the impression that this is not a statue at all, but a real girl. The variety of subjects testifies to the development of Hellas, despite the fact that at that time it was just beginning to emerge.

This era was also distinguished by painting. Many anonymous paintings painted on the walls of various palaces perfectly confirm this. In addition to them, we can also highlight very specific works with titles, for example, “Playing with a Bull.”

Homeric period of ancient Greek culture.

Cretan-Mycenaean culture is very complex and multifaceted. Unfortunately, from the 11th to the 9th centuries BC, it completely ceased to exist, just like the entire Minoan civilization. When everything old was destroyed, the process of creating a new structure of life and the formation of society began without delay. Such a turning point is reflected in written cultural monuments and the works of Homer. The main event described was Trojan War. Since no other sources of information about this era have survived, many scientists identify this short period as “Homeric”.
After everything terrible events left behind, processes in society began to proceed very rapidly, and active development began again. In the 8th-6th centuries BC, many social events took place. significant events, the main of which is the formation of city-states, or policies. It was at this time that the formation of the culture of ancient Greece took place in the form in which many people imagine it today.

Archaic period of culture of ancient Greece
During the period of archaic culture, alphabetic writing appeared. The emergence of the education system leads to the development of philosophy and various sciences, including mathematics. The active development of crafts became the reason for the development of broad trade relations, which, in turn, served as an impetus for the minting of coins and the activation of money circulation. In general, at this time all institutions of society developed evenly. If we talk about culture, then architecture and sculpture most clearly represent this era. Temples replaced palaces. Small forms of sculpture are fading into the background, and monumental sculpture is spreading, first wooden and then stone. The ideal of a person whose soul is in complete harmony with his body, and both components of his personality are developed, confidently enters into the mass consciousness. In this regard, the cult of the body becomes even more comprehensive, and two versions of sculpture are increasingly encountered: kouros, which glorified the athletic figure of a young man, and female figure in draperies, for example, bark.

In addition to sculpture and architecture, poetry also developed during the archaic period. If before this, in Homeric period The Iliad and the Odyssey were considered the main literary works, but now the poems of Geosiod were added to them. The brightest example of Greek poetry can be called the works of the only female poet of that time, Sappho, which reached modern man in an incomplete version. Anacreon, who was fascinated by life, also became famous. He is one of those who, in his works, called for pleasure from life, to live only to satisfy one’s own desires.

The classical period of the culture of ancient Greece.
However, all these are just preparatory stages. The Creto-Mycenaean, Homeric and Archaic periods prepared excellent ground for development. By the 5th century BC, all the necessary conditions were created for the establishment of the true culture of ancient Greece. In just one century, the Hellenes managed to achieve what no other people that has ever existed has achieved before - they created models and ideals for all types of art. Scientists have dubbed this fertile period classical.
The period from the 5th to the 4th centuries BC is known primarily for such names as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. These geniuses of philosophical thought gave birth not only to the foundations of philosophy, but also to other related sciences, as well as literature.

Since in the classical period the system of city-states was finally established, and successful military actions constantly lead to an increase in territories, at this time architecture reached unprecedented heights and the construction of cities increased. A certain example of the structure of city streets appears - the acropolis. Its main advantage is the clear division of all buildings into zones: residential, public, commercial, industrial and port. Each such city has a front gate and several temples. Thus, any Greek locality of that time was exactly the same as all the others, which did not allow a random traveler to get lost. The most famous Acropolis is the Acropolis of Athens; it is rightfully included in the list of outstanding architectural masterpieces.

The most famous monuments of the classical period.
In addition to the Acropolis, there are many more interesting buildings of that time. Thus, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus was classified as one of the seven wonders of the world. It housed no less famous statues of Praxiteles and Skopas, and, in addition, magnificent paintings on the walls, this gave the building a unique flavor.
The second monument of this period, also related to the wonders of the world, was the border of Mausolus, the ruler of Caria. The height of the structure, 40 m, was divided into two equal floors. In addition to the tomb of the ruler himself, the burial of his wife was also located there. On top of the monument there was a roof, like a pyramid. It was decorated with a chariot in which Mausolus and his wife stood. On the sides it was crowned with two types of sculptures - large lions and horsemen.

Sculpture from the classical period.
Sculptures of the classical period are mainly figures of gods; such monuments were made specifically for temples. Numerous statues of the goddess Athena of various heights, or Zeus, are known, especially the one located in the temple of the city of Olympia and going up 14 m above ground level. The gods were certainly depicted with their inherent everyday attributes; it was impossible to imagine Apollo without a cithara, just like and Athena without spear and helmet.

They also addressed other, more mundane topics. This is evidenced by the works of the sculptor Pythagoras of Rhegia with the telling titles “Boy Taking out a Splinter”, or the creation of Polycletus “Wounded Amazon”. Active appeal to the image of a person was the reason for the appearance of the first work on proportions human body. The “Canon” has become an excellent theoretical aid for many masters, however, it is still relevant today.

The figures of the late classical period were especially mobile, they were characterized by multiple movements, each pose was alive, which is why so often when looking at such sculptures one gets the feeling that what we are looking at is not a stone at all, but a living, real person.

Literature of the classical period.
But the classical era of the development of ancient Greek culture is known not only for architecture and sculpture. At this time, literature is also gaining momentum. The brightest representative poetry is Pindar. This period is also characterized by the emergence of theater, and, therefore, the flourishing of tragedies. Here the key names are Aeschylus with his work “Prometheus Bound”, Sophocles with the famous “Aedile the King”, as well as Euripides and his version of “Medea”. In general, there were a number of generally accepted plots that were common to several authors, while all the creators in their own way depicted the emotional tossing of the hero and his experiences. They tried not only to show the situation, but also to talk about the premises, to reveal the essence of the characters.
In addition to tragedy, comedy is also actively developing. Here Aristophanes showed himself most clearly, resorting to a conversational style, ease and accessibility of speech. The public's love was boundless, because all of Aristophanes' creations were simple and understandable to ordinary people. The author offered topical topics for the audience to think about, but the central theme was peace.

Hellionism.
The final period of Greek culture is conventionally called Hellionism. In fact, this is not a purely Greek culture, but the result of its synthesis, symbiosis with Eastern culture. Rome may be seizing the territory of Greece, but at the same time it is taking over cultures, traditions and even gods from the once powerful power.
Philosophy at this time no longer develops as actively as before. The modern queen of sciences - mathematics, on the contrary, has developed very actively. The appearance of Euclid and Archimedes in the scientific arena contributed a lot to this. The two scientists developed the theory for modern geometry, physics and algebra. There have been many scientific discoveries, various technical inventions appeared, and all this contributed in no small way to the emergence of various inventions.
Considering art, it is worth noting that sculpture and architecture developed most noticeably during this period. Only now the temple is being replaced by public buildings, for example, theaters, libraries, gymnasium buildings, but not only. Private and palace construction also developed at this time. Some of the most interesting objects include, for example, Alexandrian lighthouse, about 120 m high.

Hellionism sculpture
The sculpture of this stage as a whole is not much different from the classical one, although there are still specific features. The internal drama of the poses and facial expressions of the people depicted is one of these. And the whole structure now takes on a completely different scale, representing really tall statues. For example, the statue of the god Helios, otherwise known as the Colossus of Rhodes, 36 meters high, is widely known. Due to its size and location, this creation did not last long, being completely destroyed due to an earthquake.

The versatility of ancient Greek culture.
Ancient Greece ceased to exist in 146 BC, however, its unique culture is alive to this day. In every science and in every form of modern art one can find echoes of the period when Hellas was a powerful, developed and advanced country, and the Hellenes one of the most literate and highly organized peoples. Any educated person I simply must know ancient culture. And how could it be any other way if this culture is studied from childhood. Starting with the picture book Myths of Ancient Greece by Kuhn.

Having become adults and having completed education at school and then at the institute, the influence of Hellenic culture on a person does not weaken, because the plots of all literary works and films are, in one way or another, taken precisely from ancient mythology, the Greeks wrote everything down possible options developments of events. And, undoubtedly, everyone knows the cult sculptures of ancient Greece; for this it is not at all necessary to visit this country, just use the Internet or watch TV from time to time. However, it is quite clear that no matter how hard one tries, it is simply impossible to cover ancient Greek culture entirely, the volume of material is too large. And at the same time, one cannot hide from the eyes the fact that, practically without knowing a single Babylonian scientist, ancient egypt, any modern person will be able to name many names of Greek scientists without resorting to the help of additional media.

What did the ancient Greeks do for modern man?
Of course, there are many things for which humanity could thank the ancient Greeks. This is philosophy, astronomy, medicine, various political terms, theater, literature - you really can’t count everything. If we talk about the distinctive features of the culture of ancient Greece as a whole, we can highlight vase painting as a form of art, various statues ancient greek gods, many of which have survived through the centuries to the present day. Also standing out against the general background are various architectural buildings, from castles to temples. The culture of ancient Greece is unthinkable without literature, and it was very diverse. In addition to the fact that the Hellenes themselves created in a variety of styles and genres, they also described each of the currently existing ones. Aristotle's "Poetics" is a storehouse of thought; it describes all the features of three literary genres: lyric, epic and drama.

And besides, in the same theoretical work such terms as chronotope, form, composition are substantiated. All this greatly influenced all subsequent attempts to create artistic text. Simply put, it becomes quite clear that the culture of ancient Greece is as important for modern people as it was once important for the Hellenes themselves. Without it, a personality cannot exist, not a single creative process can take place.