Is it possible today to imagine a life in which there are no books, newspapers, magazines, or notebooks? Modern man I am so accustomed to the fact that everything important and requiring ordering should be written down, that without this knowledge would be unsystematized and fragmentary. But this was preceded by a very difficult period that lasted for millennia. Literature consisted of chronicles, chronicles and lives of saints. Artistic works They started writing much later.

When did ancient Russian literature emerge?

The prerequisite for the appearance ancient Russian literature served various shapes oral folklore, pagan legends. Slavic writing arose only in the 9th century AD. Until this time, knowledge and epics were passed on from mouth to mouth. But the baptism of Rus' and the creation of the alphabet by Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius in 863 opened the way for books from Byzantium, Greece, and Bulgaria. Through the first books it was transmitted Christian teaching. Since there were few written sources in ancient times, the need arose to rewrite books.

The ABC contributed to cultural development Eastern Slavs. Because Old Russian language similar to the ancient Bulgarian alphabet, then the Slavic alphabet, which was used in Bulgaria and Serbia, could be used in Rus'. The Eastern Slavs gradually adopted a new writing system. In ancient Bulgaria, by the 10th century, culture had reached its peak of development. Works by writers John the Exarch of Bulgaria, Clement, and Tsar Simeon began to appear. Their works also influenced ancient Russian culture.

The Christianization of the ancient Russian state made writing a necessity, because without it it was impossible public life, public, international relations. The Christian religion is not able to exist without teachings, solemn words, lives, and the life of the prince and his court, relations with neighbors and enemies were reflected in the chronicles. Translators and copyists appeared. They were all church people: priests, deacons, monks. Rewriting took a lot of time, and there were still few books.

Old Russian books were written mainly on parchment, which was obtained after special processing of pork, calf, and lamb skin. In the ancient Russian state, handwritten books were called “harateynye”, “harati” or “veal books”. The durable but expensive material also made books expensive, which is why it was so important to find a replacement for pet leather. Foreign paper, called “overseas”, appeared only in the 14th century. But until the 17th century, to write valuable state documents used parchment.

Ink was made by combining old iron (nails) and tannin (growths on oak leaves called “ink nuts”). To make the ink thick and shiny, cherry and molasses glue was poured into it. Ferrous ink, which has a brown tint, was distinguished by its increased durability. To add originality and decorativeness, colored ink, gold or silver sheets were used. For writing, they used goose feathers, the tip of which was cut off, and a cut was made in the middle of the point.

What century does ancient Russian literature belong to?

The first ancient Russian written sources date back to the 9th century. Old Russian state Kievan Rus occupied a place of honor among other European states. Written sources contributed to the strengthening of the state and its development. Ends Old Russian period in the 17th century.

Periodization of Old Russian literature.

1. Written sources Kievan Rus: the period covers the 11th century and beginning of XIII century. At this time, the main written source was the chronicle.
2. Literature of the second third of the 13th century and the end of the 14th century. The Old Russian state is going through a period of fragmentation. Dependence on the Golden Horde set back the development of culture many centuries ago.
3. The end of the 14th century, which is characterized by the unification of the principalities of the northeast into one Moscow principality, the emergence of appanage principalities, and the beginning of the 15th century.
4. XV - XVI centuries: this is the period of centralization of the Russian state and the emergence of journalistic literature.
5. XVI — late XVII century is the New Time, which marks the appearance of poetry. Now works are released with an indication of the author.

The oldest of famous works Russian literature is the Ostromir Gospel. It received its name from the name of the Novgorod mayor Ostromir, who ordered the scribe Deacon Gregory to translate it. During 1056 - 1057 the translation has been completed. This was the mayor's contribution to the St. Sophia Cathedral, erected in Novgorod.

The second Gospel is the Arkhangelsk Gospel, which was written in 1092. From the literature of this period there is a lot of hidden and philosophical meaning hidden in the Izbornik of Grand Duke Svyatoslav of 1073. The Izbornik reveals the meaning and idea of ​​mercy, the principles of morality. The basis philosophical thought The Gospels and Apostolic Epistles came to Kievan Rus. They described the earthly life of Jesus and also described his miraculous resurrection.

Books have always been the source of philosophical thought. Translations from Syriac, Greek, and Georgian penetrated into Rus'. There were also translations from European countries: England, France, Norway, Denmark, Sweden. Their works were revised and rewritten by ancient Russian scribes. Old Russian philosophical culture- This is a reflection of mythology and has Christian roots. Among the monuments Old Russian writing The “Messages of Vladimir Monomakh” and “Prayers of Daniil the Zatochnik” stand out.

The first ancient Russian literature is characterized by high expressiveness and richness of language. For enrichment Old Slavonic language used the language of folklore and speeches. There were two literary style, one of which is “High” for ceremonial purposes, the other is “Low”, which was used in everyday life.

Genres of literature

1. lives of saints, include biographies of bishops, patriarchs, founders of monasteries, saints (created in compliance with special rules and required a special style of presentation) - patericon (life of the first saints Boris and Gleb, Abbess Feodosia),
2. lives of saints, which are presented from a different point of view - apocrypha,
3. historical works or chronicles (chronographs) – short notes history of ancient Rus', Russian chronograph of the second half of the 15th century,
4. works about fictional travels and adventures - walking.

Genres of Old Russian literature table

The central place among the genres of ancient Russian literature is occupied by chronicle writing, which developed over the centuries. These are weather records of history and events. Ancient Rus'. The chronicle is a preserved written chronicle (from the word - summer, records begin “in summer”) monument from one or several lists. The names of the chronicles are random. This may be the name of the scribe or the name of the area where the chronicle was written. For example, Lavrentyevskaya - on behalf of the scribe Lavrenty, Ipatyevskaya - after the name of the monastery where the chronicle was found. Often chronicles are collections that combine several chronicles at once. The source for such vaults were protographs.

The chronicle that served as the basis for the vast majority of ancient Russian written sources is the “Tale of Bygone Years” of 1068. A common feature chronicles of the 12th – 15th centuries is something that chroniclers no longer consider political events in their chronicles, but focus on the needs and interests of “their principality” (Chronicle of Veliky Novgorod, Pskov chronicle, chronicle of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, Moscow chronicle), and not the events of the Russian land as a whole, as was the case before

What work do we call a monument of ancient Russian literature?

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” of 1185-1188 is considered the main monument of ancient Russian literature, describing not so much an episode from the Russian-Polovtsian wars, but rather reflecting events on an all-Russian scale. The author connects Igor’s failed campaign in 1185 with strife and calls for unification for the sake of saving his people.

Sources of personal origin are heterogeneous verbal sources that are united common origin: private correspondence, autobiographies, travel descriptions. They reflect the author’s direct perception of historical events. Such sources first appeared in the princely period. These are the memoirs of Nestor the Chronicler, for example.

In the 15th century, the heyday of chronicle writing began, when voluminous chronicles and short chroniclers, telling about the activities of one princely family. Two parallel directions emerge: the official and oppositional point of view (the church and princely descriptions).

Here we should talk about the problem of falsification historical sources or creating documents that never existed before, making amendments to original documents. For this purpose, entire systems of methods were developed. In the 18th century, interest in historical science was universal. This resulted in the appearance of a large number of counterfeits, presented in an epic form and passed off as the original. A whole industry is emerging in Russia for falsifying ancient sources. We study burned or lost chronicles, for example the Lay, from surviving copies. This is how copies were made by Musin-Pushkin, A. Bardin, A. Surakadzev. Among the most mysterious sources is the “Book of Veles,” found on the Zadonsky estate in the form of wooden tablets with text scratched on them.

Old Russian literature of the 11th – 14th centuries is not only teachings, but also rewriting from Bulgarian originals or translation from Greek of a huge amount of literature. The large-scale work done allowed ancient Russian scribes to become acquainted with the main genres and literary monuments of Byzantium over two centuries.

IN XI-XII centuries took off cultural development Kievan Rus. Cultural centers there were large cities, many of which acquired the importance of European centers: Novgorod, Kyiv, Galich.
Excavations carried out by archaeologists allow us to talk about high culture townspeople, many of whom were literate. This is evidenced by preserved debt receipts, petitions, orders on economic affairs, notices of arrival, letters written on birch bark, as well as inscriptions on things and church walls preserved in different cities. Schools were organized in cities to teach literacy. The first schools for boys appeared in the 10th century, and in the 11th century a school for girls was opened in Kyiv.
It is known for certain that even before the adoption of Christianity, Ancient Rus' knew writing. The first to reach us handwritten books are true works of art. The books were written on a very expensive material - parchment, which was made from lamb, calf or goat skin. They were decorated with amazingly beautiful colored miniatures.
Most of the books that have come down to us from this period of time are of religious content. Thus, out of 130 surviving books, 80 contain the basics of Christian doctrine and morality. However, at this time there was also religious literature for reading. A well-preserved collection of stories about real and legendary animals, trees, and stones is “The Physiologist.” This collection consists of several stories, at the end of each there is a small interpretation of what is described in the spirit of Christianity. So, for example, the natural property of the woodpecker to chisel trees was correlated with the devil, who persistently seeks weak points person.
Such outstanding monuments of church literature as the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion and the sermons of Cyril of Turov date back to the same period of time. There were also religious books that unconventionally interpreted well-known biblical stories. Such books were called apocrypha. The name comes from the Greek word for hidden. The most popular was the apocryphal "Walk of the Virgin Mary through Torment."
Lives of saints were created in large numbers, which described in detail the life, activities, and exploits of people canonized by the church. The plot of the life could be exciting, such as, for example, “The Life of Alexei, the Man of God.”
Literary monuments of the Vladimir-Suzdal land are also known. Among them is "The Word" ("Prayer") by Daniil Zatochnik.
In the 11th century, the first works of a historical (documentary) nature appeared. The oldest chronicle that has survived to this day, the Tale of Bygone Years, dates back to this period of time. This document allows us to judge not only political situation of that time, but also about the life and customs of the ancient Russians.
IN major cities Detailed chronicles were kept in which the events that took place were recorded. The chronicles contained copies of original documents from the princely archives, detailed descriptions battles, reports on diplomatic negotiations. However, one cannot talk about the objectivity of these chronicles, since their compilers were primarily children of their time, who tried to justify the actions of their prince and denigrate his opponents.
An outstanding monument of ancient Russian literature is “The Instruction” of Vladimir Monomakh. It was intended for the prince’s children and contained instructions on how young princes, children of warriors, should behave. He ordered both his own and strangers not to offend the inhabitants of the villages, to always help those who ask, to feed guests, not to pass by a person without greeting, to take care of the sick and infirm.
And finally, the most significant monument of ancient Russian literature is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The work is based on the campaign undertaken by Prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians. Unfortunately, the only surviving manuscript of the Lay was burned during a fire in Moscow in 1812.

With the advent of writing and the spread of literacy, ancient Russian literature developed.

Chronicles are monuments of historical writing and literature of Ancient Rus'. The narration in them was carried out by year: chroniclers sequentially recorded the events that occurred in a particular year. The appearance of the first historical works dates back to the time of Yaroslav the Wise. Chronicles were created in Kyiv and Novgorod; on their basis, the monk Nestor in the 11th century compiled the chronicle code that has come down to us "The Tale of Bygone Years"(Initial Chronicle), which contains an account ancient history Slavs, as well as the history of Rus' until 1100.

The NIRO library invites you to familiarize yourself with the book “ Old Russian chronicles", in which you will find the text of the Initial Chronicle, as well as the Kyiv and Galician-Volyn Chronicles.

"The Tale of Bygone Years" was included in Laurentian Chronicle, which got its name from the monk Lawrence, who rewrote it in 1377. The chronicle, together with the Tale of Bygone Years, contains a description of the events that occurred in the southern Russian principalities, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'. Full text“Tales” according to the Laurentian list you will find in the book

Thanks to Lavrenty, we have not only the most ancient list“The Tale of Bygone Years”, but also the only text of “Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh to Children”. “Lesson for Children” by Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh is addressed not only to children - heirs state power, but also to everyone who reads it. You can get acquainted with the text of the “Teaching” and its translation by following the link.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"- a literary monument of the 12th century, which is based on a historical event - the unsuccessful campaign of Novgorod-Northern Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich against the Polovtsians in 1185.

Edition spread

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"

The only copy of the “Word” has come down to us as part of a collection that was kept in the library of the Spaso-Yaroslavl Monastery. The name of the author and the exact date of writing the Lay are unknown. Most researchers believe that it was created at the end of the 12th century.

“Domostroy” is one of the most famous ancient Russian literary monuments. It reflects the ideals of spiritual, social and family life, pictures are clearly shown medieval life, rituals associated with centuries-old Russian traditions are described.

Today it worries all those who are interested in the history and culture of our country. We will try to give a comprehensive answer to it.

Old Russian literature is usually called the monuments of bookishness of Kievan Rus, which appeared at the stage of the creation of the state of the Eastern Slavs, called Kievan Rus. The Old Russian period in the history of Russian literature, according to some literary scholars, ends in 1237 (during the devastating Tatar invasion); according to other literary scholars, it continues for about 400 years and gradually ends in the era of the revival of the Moscow state after the Time of Troubles.

However, the first version is more preferable, which partly explains to us when and why Old Russian literature arose.

Anyway this fact suggests that our ancestors approached a stage of social development when they were no longer satisfied folklore works and new genres were required - hagiographic literature, teachings, collections and “words”.

When did ancient Russian literature arise: history and main factors of its emergence

The exact date of writing the first ancient Russian work not in history, but the beginning of bookishness in Rus' is traditionally associated with two events. The first is the appearance in our country of Orthodox monks - Methodius and Cyril, who created the Glagolitic alphabet, and later put their efforts into creating the Cyrillic alphabet. This made it possible to translate liturgical and Christian texts of the Byzantine Empire into Old Church Slavonic.

The second key event was the Christianization of Rus' itself, which allowed our state to closely communicate with the Greeks, the bearers of the then wisdom and knowledge.

It should be noted that it is impossible to answer the question of what year ancient Russian literature arose also because huge amount monuments of ancient Russian literature were lost as a result of the devastating Horde yoke, most of them burned in numerous fires that were brought to our country by bloodthirsty nomads.

The most famous monuments of bookishness of Ancient Rus'

When answering the question about when ancient Russian literature arose, we must not forget that the works of this period are quite high level literary skill. One famous “Tale” about Prince Igor’s campaign against the Polovtsians is worth a lot.

Despite the devastating historical circumstances, the following monuments have survived to this day.

Let us briefly list the key ones:

1. Ostromir Gospel.
2. Numerous teaching collections.
3. Collections of lives (for example, collections of the lives of the first Russian saints from the Kiev Pechersk Lavra).
4. "The Sermon on Law and Grace" by Hilarion.
5. Life of Boris and Gleb.
6. Reading about princes Boris and Gleb.
7. "The Tale of Bygone Years".
8. "Teachings of Prince Vladimir, nicknamed Monomakh."
9. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign."
10. "The Tale of the Death of the Russian Land."

Chronology of Old Russian literature

An expert in the ancient Russian written tradition, Academician D.S. Likhachev and his colleagues assumed that the answer to the question of when Old Russian literature arose should be sought in the first monuments of Russian literature.

According to these chronicle sources, translated works from Greek first appeared in our country in the 10th century. At the same time, folklore texts of legends about the exploits of Svyatoslav Igorevich, as well as epics about Prince Vladimir, were created at the same time.

In the 11th century, thanks to the activities of Metropolitan Hilarion, the literary works. For example, this is the already mentioned “Sermon on Law and Grace,” a description of the adoption of Christianity by the Russian people, and others. In the same century, the texts of the first selections were created, as well as the first texts of the lives of those who died as a result of the princely strife and were later canonized.

In the 12th century, original works of authorship were written that told about the life of Theodosius, abbot of Pechersk, and the lives of other saints of the Russian land. At the same time, the text of the so-called Galician Gospel was created, and parables and “words” were written by a talented Russian orator. The creation of the text “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” dates back to the same century. At the same time it is published large number translated works that came from Byzantium and carried the foundations of both Christian and Hellenic wisdom.

Consequently, it is possible to answer the question with all objectivity about in what century Old Russian literature arose in this way: it happened in the 10th century along with the appearance Slavic writing and the creation of Kievan Rus as a single state.

The word "Monument" comes from the word "memory". Most often, monuments are buildings or busts built in honor and glory of a person. For example, many monuments to Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin were created. To perpetuate the memory of the great poet, his grateful admirers erected monuments to him. Monuments in those places where the poet lived and wrote his works are especially dear to us. They preserve the memory of the poet’s stay in these places. Ancient temples and ancient buildings in general are called architectural monuments, because they also preserve the memory of past centuries of native history.

In order for some work to be recognized literary monument, time must pass. An ancient Russian writer who compiled a chronicle, story or biographies of saints probably did not think that he was creating monuments. But after some time, descendants evaluate the work as a monument if they see in it something outstanding or characteristic of the era in which it was created.

What is the value of literary monuments, architectural monuments and cultural monuments in general? The monument is a witness of its time.

Among the outstanding monuments of ancient Russian literature are “The Tale of Bygone Years” by Nestor the Chronicler, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”, “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, “The Life of Sergius of Radonezh”, “The Chronicle Tale of the Battle of Kulikovo” and other heroic works of Ancient Rus' . One of the most remarkable monuments of ancient Russian literature is “Vladimir Monomakh’s Teachings to His Children,” extracted from the Laurentian Chronicle. Those who study their native history and Russian literature cannot help but turn to all these monuments of ancient Russian literature. We will also turn to them, because they all bear us living testimony about the past of our Fatherland.

Literature is part of reality; it occupies a certain place in the history of the people and fulfills enormous social responsibilities. During the period of the 9th - early 13th centuries. serves the purpose of unification, expresses the national consciousness of unity. She is the keeper of history and legends, and these latter were a kind of means of exploring space, marking the holiness or significance of a particular place: a tract, a mound, a village, etc. Historically, legends conveyed historical depth to the country, they were that “fourth dimension” in within the framework of which the entire vast Russian land was perceived and became visible. The same role was played by chronicles and lives of saints, historical stories and stories about the founding of monasteries. All Russian literature was distinguished by deep historicism. Literature was one of the ways to master the surrounding world.

What did ancient Russian literature teach? The secular element of ancient Russian literature was deeply patriotic. She taught active love for the homeland, fostered citizenship, and strived to correct the shortcomings of society.

In essence, all monuments of ancient Russian literature, thanks to their historical topics much more closely interconnected than at present. They can be arranged in chronological order, but as a whole they present one story: Russian and world. Ancient literature by the nature of its existence and creation, it belongs to folklore rather than to the personal creativity of modern times. The work, once created by the author, was then changed by scribes in numerous rewrites, remade, different environments acquired various ideological overtones, was supplemented, acquired new episodes, etc.: therefore, almost every work that has come down to us in several copies is known to us in various editions, types and editions.

The first Russian works are full of admiration for the wisdom of the universe, but a wisdom that is not closed in itself, but serves man. Along the path of such an anthropocentric perception of the universe, the relationship between the artist and the object of art also changed. And this new attitude led a person away from what was canonically recognized by the church.

The appeal of art to its creators and to all people became the style-forming dominant of all monumental art and all literature of the pre-Mongol period. It is from here that the imposing, solemn, ceremonial quality of all forms of art and literature of this time comes.

The literary style of the entire pre-Mongol period can be defined as the style of monumental historicism. People of this time sought to see in everything significant in content, powerful in its forms. The style of monumental historicism is characterized by the desire to view what is depicted as if from great distances - spatial, temporal (historical), hierarchical distances. This is a style within which everything that is most beautiful appears large, monumental, majestic. A kind of “panoramic vision” develops. The chronicler sees the Russian land as if from a great height. He strives for a narrative about the entire Russian land, immediately and easily moves from an event in one principality to an event in another - at the opposite end of the Russian land. This happens not only because the chronicler combined in his narrative sources of different geographical origins, but also because it was precisely such a “broad” story that corresponded to the aesthetic ideas of his time V.P. Adrianova-Peretz. Ancient Russian literature and folklore: (Towards the formulation of the problem). -- P. 5--16.

The desire to connect various geographical points in one's narrative is also characteristic of the works of Vladimir Monomakh - especially his biography.

It is characteristic that writers of the 9th - 13th centuries. they perceive victory over the enemy as gaining “space”, and defeat as loss of space, misfortune as “crowding”, Life path, if it is filled with need and grief, it is, first of all, a “straight path.”

The Old Russian writer seems to be striving to mark more different places with events that took place in them. historical events. The land is sacred to him, it is consecrated by these historical events. He marks both the place on the Volga where Boris’s horse stumbled in the field and broke his leg, and Smyadyn, where Gleb received the news of his father’s death. and Vyshgorod, where the brothers were then buried, etc. The author seems to be in a hurry to connect more different places, tracts, rivers and cities with the memory of Boris and Gleb. This is especially significant in connection with the fact that the cult of Boris and Gleb directly served the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land, directly emphasizing the unity of the princely family, the need for brotherly love, and strict subordination of the younger princes to the elders.

The writer makes sure that all the characters behave appropriately, so that they say everything necessary words. “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” is furnished with speeches from beginning to end characters, as if ceremonially commenting on what was happening.

And another feature of the aesthetic formation is its ensemble character.

Medieval art - system art, systemic and unified. It unites visible world and invisible, created by man with the entire cosmos. The works of literature of this period are not self-contained or isolated little worlds. Each of them seems to gravitate toward its neighbors, which already existed before it. Each new work is, first of all, an addition to existing ones, but an addition not in form, but in theme, in plot. Each new work is, first of all, an addition to the existing ones, but an addition not in form, but in theme, in the plot of Adrianova-Peretz V.P. The main tasks of studying ancient Russian literature in research pp. 5--14.