Holland. 17th century The country is experiencing unprecedented prosperity. The so-called "Golden Age". At the end of the 16th century, several provinces of the country achieved independence from Spain.

Now the Protestant Netherlands have gone their own way. And Catholic Flanders (present-day Belgium) under the wing of Spain is its own.

In independent Holland, almost no one needed religious painting. The Protestant Church did not approve of luxury decoration. But this circumstance “played into the hands” of secular painting.

Literally every resident has awakened a love for this type of art. new country. The Dutch wanted to see in the paintings own life. And the artists willingly met them halfway.

Never before has the surrounding reality been depicted so much. Ordinary people, ordinary rooms and the most ordinary breakfast of a city dweller.

Realism flourished. Until the 20th century, it will be a worthy competitor to academicism with its nymphs and Greek goddesses.

These artists are called "small" Dutch. Why? The paintings were small in size, because they were created for small houses. Thus, almost all paintings by Jan Vermeer are no more than half a meter in height.

But I like the other version better. In the Netherlands in the 17th century, a great master, the “big” Dutchman, lived and worked. And everyone else was “small” in comparison with him.

We are talking, of course, about Rembrandt. Let's start with him.

1. Rembrandt (1606-1669)

Rembrandt. Self-portrait at the age of 63. 1669 National Gallery London

Rembrandt experienced a wide range of emotions during his life. That's why there's so much fun and bravado in his early work. And there are so many complex feelings - in the later ones.

Here he is young and carefree in the painting “The Prodigal Son in the Tavern.” On his knees is his beloved wife Saskia. He - popular artist. Orders are pouring in.

Rembrandt. The Prodigal Son in a Tavern. 1635 Old Masters Gallery, Dresden

But all this will disappear in about 10 years. Saskia will die of consumption. Popularity will disappear like smoke. Big house with unique collection they will take you for debts.

But the same Rembrandt will appear who will remain for centuries. The bare feelings of the heroes. Their deepest thoughts.

2. Frans Hals (1583-1666)

Frans Hals. Self-portrait. 1650 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Frans Hals is one of the greatest portrait painters of all time. Therefore, I would also classify him as a “big” Dutchman.

In Holland at that time it was customary to order group portraits. This is how many similar works appeared depicting people working together: marksmen of one guild, doctors of one town, managers of a nursing home.

In this genre, Hals stands out the most. After all, most of these portraits looked like a deck of cards. People sit at the table with the same facial expression and just watch. With Hals it was different.

Look at him group portrait"Arrows of the Guild of St. George."

Frans Hals. Arrows of the Guild of St. George. 1627 Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem, Netherlands

Here you will not find a single repetition in pose or facial expression. At the same time, there is no chaos here. There are a lot of characters, but no one seems superfluous. Thanks to the amazingly correct arrangement of figures.

And even in a single portrait, Hals was superior to many artists. His patterns are natural. People from high society his paintings are devoid of contrived grandeur, and the models from the lower classes do not look humiliated.

And his characters are also very emotional: they smile, laugh, and gesticulate. Like, for example, this “Gypsy” with a sly look.

Frans Hals. Gypsy. 1625-1630

Hals, like Rembrandt, ended his life in poverty. For the same reason. His realism ran counter to the tastes of his customers. Who wanted their appearance to be embellished. Hals did not accept outright flattery, and thereby signed his own sentence - “Oblivion.”

3. Gerard Terborch (1617-1681)

Gerard Terborch. Self-portrait. 1668 Royal Gallery Mauritshuis, The Hague, The Netherlands

Terborch was a master of the everyday genre. Rich and not-so-rich burghers talk leisurely, ladies read letters, and a procuress watches the courtship. Two or three closely spaced figures.

It was this master who developed the canons of the everyday genre. Which would later be borrowed by Jan Vermeer, Pieter de Hooch and many other “small” Dutchmen.

Gerard Terborch. A glass of lemonade. 1660s. State Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg

“A Glass of Lemonade” is one of famous works Terborha. It shows another advantage of the artist. Incredibly realistic image of the dress fabric.

Terborch also has unusual works. Which speaks volumes about his desire to go beyond customer requirements.

His "The Grinder" shows the life of the poorest people in Holland. We are used to seeing cozy courtyards and clean rooms in the paintings of the “small” Dutch. But Terborch dared to show unsightly Holland.

Gerard Terborch. Grinder. 1653-1655 State Museums of Berlin

As you understand, such work was not in demand. And they are a rare occurrence even among Terborch.

4. Jan Vermeer (1632-1675)

Jan Vermeer. Artist's workshop. 1666-1667 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

It is not known for certain what Jan Vermeer looked like. It is only obvious that in the painting “The Artist’s Workshop” he depicted himself. The truth from the back.

It is therefore surprising that it has recently become known new fact from the life of a master. It is connected with his masterpiece “Delft Street”.

Jan Vermeer. Delft street. 1657 Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam

It turned out that Vermeer spent his childhood on this street. The house pictured belonged to his aunt. She raised her five children there. Perhaps she is sitting on the doorstep sewing while her two children play on the sidewalk. Vermeer himself lived in the house opposite.

But more often he depicted the interior of these houses and their inhabitants. It would seem that the plots of the paintings are very simple. Here is a pretty lady, a wealthy city dweller, checking the operation of her scales.

Jan Vermeer. Woman with scales. 1662-1663 National Gallery of Art, Washington

Why did Vermeer stand out among thousands of other “small” Dutchmen?

He was an unsurpassed master of light. In the painting “Woman with Scales” the light softly envelops the heroine’s face, fabrics and walls. Giving the image an unknown spirituality.

And the compositions of Vermeer’s paintings are carefully verified. You won't find a single unnecessary detail. It is enough to remove one of them, the picture will “fall apart”, and the magic will go away.

All this was not easy for Vermeer. Such amazing quality required painstaking work. Only 2-3 paintings per year. As a result, the inability to feed the family. Vermeer also worked as an art dealer, selling works by other artists.

5. Pieter de Hooch (1629-1884)

Pieter de Hooch. Self-portrait. 1648-1649 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Hoch is often compared to Vermeer. They worked at the same time, there was even a period in the same city. And in one genre - everyday. In Hoch we also see one or two figures in cozy Dutch courtyards or rooms.

Open doors and the windows make the space of his paintings multi-layered and entertaining. And the figures fit into this space very harmoniously. As, for example, in his painting “Maid with a Girl in the Courtyard.”

Pieter de Hooch. A maid with a girl in the courtyard. 1658 London National Gallery

Until the 20th century, Hoch was highly valued. But few people noticed the small works of his competitor Vermeer.

But in the 20th century everything changed. Hoch's glory faded. However, it is difficult not to recognize his achievements in painting. Few could so competently combine environment and people.

Pieter de Hooch. Card players in a sunny room. 1658 Royal Art Collection, London

Please note that in a modest house on the canvas “Card Players” there is a painting hanging in an expensive frame.

This once again shows how popular painting was among ordinary Dutch people. Paintings decorated every home: the house of a rich burgher, a modest city dweller, and even a peasant.

6. Jan Steen (1626-1679)

Jan Steen. Self-portrait with a lute. 1670s Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid

Jan Steen is perhaps the most cheerful “little” Dutchman. But loving moral teaching. He often depicted taverns or poor houses in which vice existed.

Its main characters are revelers and ladies prostitute. He wanted to entertain the viewer, but latently warn him against a vicious life.

Jan Steen. It's a mess. 1663 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Sten also has quieter works. Like, for example, “Morning Toilet.” But here too the artist surprises the viewer with too revealing details. There are traces of stocking elastic, and not an empty chamber pot. And somehow it’s not at all appropriate for the dog to be lying right on the pillow.

Jan Steen. Morning toilet. 1661-1665 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

But despite all the frivolity, color solutions Wall is very professional. In this he was superior to many “little Dutchmen”. Look how perfectly the red stocking goes with the blue jacket and bright beige rug.

7. Jacobs Van Ruisdael (1629-1882)

Portrait of Ruisdael. Lithograph from a 19th century book.

Having won victory in the fight against Spain for its independence, bourgeois Holland became the most economically developed state in Western Europe. The main Dutch city of Amsterdam has emerged as one of the largest shopping centers in Europe.

Along with the economy, Dutch painting is also developing. Unlike other Western European countries, baroque paintings of palaces and castles were not popular in Holland - the weakness of the nobility served as an obstacle to development decorative arts. The Calvinist Church of Holland also did not seek to decorate its churches with works of painting.

Nevertheless, painting flourished in Holland: artists received numerous orders from private individuals. Hang it in your home a small picture Even Dutch peasants could - these artists’ creations were so cheap.

In the 17th century Over two thousand artists worked in little Holland. They put the production of paintings on stream, produced canvases in whole batches and handed them over to sellers. Almost every master performed from two to five compositions per week.

Often the production of paintings outpaced demand, so in order to feed themselves, artists had to simultaneously engage in other work. Such famous masters as J. Steen, M. Gobbema, J. van Goyen and many others were at the same time employees, gardeners, and tavern keepers.

Typically, painters specialized in one specific topic. For example, H. Averkamp wrote winter views, E. van der Poel depicted night fires, G. Terborch and G. Metsu - everyday scenes, P. Klas and V. K. Kheda - still lifes-breakfasts.

Very often, artists worked collectively on one picture: one painted the sky, another - grass and trees, the third - human figures. The most successful works that were successful with the public were copied and served as a model for the creation of countless versions.

Although the art of talented painters was subordinated to commercial goals, the masters usually managed to avoid falsehood. Most of these paintings are distinguished by their realism, integrity and clarity of composition, freshness of color and excellent execution technique.

The portrait genre became widespread in Dutch painting. Various organizations played a major role in the life of the country (the shooting society, groups of representatives of the medical corporation and trade shops), which contributed to the emergence of a group public portrait.

The long-term struggle with the Spanish colonialists sharpened the feeling national identity Therefore, in painting, in addition to realism, the depiction of characteristic national features was especially welcomed. Artists painted the sea and ships, livestock, flowers. In addition to portraiture, genres such as landscape and still life developed. There was also religious painting, but it lacked the element of mysticism; biblical stories introduced themselves
by the artist rather as everyday scenes.

Frans Hals

Frans Hals was born around 1581 in Antwerp into a weaver's family. As a young man, he came to Haarlem, where he lived almost constantly until his death (in 1616 he visited Antwerp, and in the mid-1630s - Amsterdam). Little is known about Hulse's life. In 1610 he entered the Guild of St. Luke, and in 1616 he entered the chamber of rhetoricians (amateur actors).

Very quickly Hals became one of the most famous portrait painters Haarlem. In the XV-XVI centuries. in the painting of the Netherlands there was a tradition of painting portraits only of representatives of the ruling circles, famous people and artists. Hals's art is deeply democratic: in his portraits we can see an aristocrat, a wealthy citizen, an artisan, and even a person from the very bottom. The artist does not try to idealize those depicted; the main thing for him is their naturalness and uniqueness. His nobles behave as relaxed as representatives of the lower strata of society, who in Khals’s paintings are depicted as cheerful people who are not devoid of self-esteem.

Group portraits occupy a large place in the artist’s work. The best works Portraits of officers of the St. George rifle company (1627) and the St. Adrian rifle company (1633) became of this genre. Each character in the paintings has its own distinct personality, and at the same time, these works are distinguished by their integrity.

Hals also painted commissioned portraits depicting wealthy burghers and their families in relaxed poses (“Portrait of Isaac Massa,” 1626; “Portrait of Hethuisen,” 1637). Hals’s images are lively and dynamic; it seems that the people in the portraits are talking to an invisible interlocutor or addressing the viewer.

Representatives of the popular environment in Khals’s portraits are distinguished by their vivid expressiveness and spontaneity. In the images of street boys, fishermen, musicians, and tavern visitors, one can feel the author’s sympathy and respect. His “Gypsy” is remarkable. The smiling young woman seems surprisingly alive, her sly gaze directed at her interlocutor, invisible to the audience. Hals does not idealize his model, but the image of a cheerful, disheveled gypsy delights with its perky charm.

Very often, Hulse's portraits include elements of a genre scene. These are the images of children singing or playing on musical instruments("The Singing Boys", 1624-1625). The famous “Malle Babbe” (early 1630s) was performed in the same spirit, representing a well-known tavern owner in Haarlem, whom visitors called the Haarlem Witch behind her back. The artist almost grotesquely depicted a woman with a huge beer mug and an owl on her shoulder.

In the 1640s. The country is showing signs of a turning point. Only a few decades have passed since the victory of the revolution, and the bourgeoisie has already ceased to be a progressive class based on democratic traditions. The truthfulness of Hals painting no longer attracts wealthy clients who want to see themselves in portraits better than they really are. But Hulse did not abandon realism, and his popularity plummeted. In the painting of this period, notes of sadness and disappointment appear (“Portrait of a Man in a Wide-brimmed Hat”). His palette becomes stricter and calmer.

At the age of 84, Hulse created two of his masterpieces: group portraits of regents (trustees) and regents of a nursing home (1664). These latest works by the Dutch master are distinguished by their emotionality and strong individuality of images. The images of the regents - old men and women - emanate sadness and death. This feeling is also emphasized by the color scheme in black, gray and white.

Hals died in 1666 in deep poverty. His truthful, life-affirming art has had a great influence on many Dutch artists.

Rembrandt

In the 1640-1660s. Dutch painting was flourishing. The most significant artist of this time was Rembrandt.

Rembrandt Harmens van Rijn was born in 1606 in Leiden. His father was a wealthy miller. Parents dreamed of good education for his son and sent him to a Latin school, after which Rembrandt entered the University of Leiden. But the young man was attracted to art. He left the university and began studying with the painter Jacob Swannenburch. Three years later, the young artist went to Amsterdam, where he began taking lessons from Pieter Lastman.

In 1624 Rembrandt returned to Leiden. Here he rented a studio together with the painter Jan Lievens. The artist works a lot from life, painting not only in the studio, but also on the street and at the city bazaar.

At the end of the 1620s. Rembrandt gained popularity among the residents of Leiden. He received many orders and his first student was Gerard Dou, who later became a fairly famous painter.

Rembrandt's early paintings are characterized by careful composition and conscientious execution. At the same time, they are characterized by some stiffness (“The Torment of St. Sebastian”, 1625).

In 1631, Rembrandt settled in Amsterdam. His fame quickly spread throughout the city, and orders poured in for the painter. Rembrandt's personal life was also successful: in 1634 he married Saskia van Uylenburg, a girl from a famous bourgeois family. The marriage brought the artist a significant fortune, which provided him with creative independence and allowed him to start collecting works of art and antiques.

Rembrandt enjoyed happiness in the company of his beloved wife, whom he depicted many times in portraits. Saskia often served as a model for paintings with a wide variety of themes (“Flora,” 1634; “Self-portrait with Saskia on her knees,” c. 1639).

Rembrandt's work during this period is diverse; he painted historical, mythological and religious compositions, portraits, everyday scenes, landscapes, still lifes, paintings with images of animals. But the main object of his attention is man. Not only in portraits, but also in his other works, the artist strives to convey the character and inner world of his heroes.

A remarkable master of the portrait genre, only in the 1630s. Rembrandt executed more than sixty commissioned portraits. The main thing for a painter is not the external resemblance to the model, but the depth inner world, the power of mental movements and experiences. The group portrait “The Anatomy of Doctor Tulp” (1632) was greeted with delight by his contemporaries. The artist made changes to the traditional composition of the classic group portrait, arranging the figures not in a row, as was customary, but freely. This construction gave the image life and naturalness.

At the end of the 1630s. Rembrandt became the most famous master in Holland. His masterpiece, the famous “Danae” (1636), dates back to this period, the craftsmanship of which surpasses everything that was created by his contemporaries
artist. The perfection of its composition and richness amazes color range, designed in golden shades. It seems that there is nothing superfluous in this work; every detail is carefully thought out by the author. With the help of a free and lively brushstroke, the master conveys the lightness of the bedspread, the folds of heavy curtains and draperies. The flexible plasticity of the young woman lying on the bed and the soft golden shades of the body, illuminated by soft light, are striking. Although Danaë does not shine with ideal beauty, her image delights the viewer with its lively charm and freshness.

In the 1630s. The artist also works a lot in etching. He is attracted by everyday motives (“Seller of Rat Poison”, 1632). Elements of genre are also inherent in works with biblical themes (“Return prodigal son", 1636). One of the best etchings of this period is “The Death of Mary” (1639), emotional and imbued with a feeling of deep sorrow. The complexity of the composition and the monumental grandeur of the images also distinguishes wonderful work“Christ Healing the Sick” (the so-called “Sheet of One Hundred Guilders” - this name indicates the cost of the work).

In the 1640s. Rembrandt becomes the most famous and highest paid painter in Amsterdam. He was commissioned for portraits and compositions for the palace of the Dutch Stadtholder in The Hague. Many aspiring artists seek to study in his workshop. The fame of Rembrandt's art extends beyond the borders of Holland. Several paintings famous master kept in the palace English king Charles I.

Rembrandt's talent was evident in his realistic and expressive still lifes ("Bull's Carcass") and landscapes ("Landscape with a Mill", c. 1650). Subtle lyricism is inherent in the unassuming Dutch landscapes, striking the viewer with their almost tangible reality.

The death of his beloved wife in 1642 alienated Rembrandt from her noble relatives. The artist stopped communicating with his acquaintances from aristocratic society. The changes in the master’s life were reflected in his painting, which became deeper and more focused. If early works Rembrandt is distinguished by a calm and even mood, but now notes of anxiety and doubt begin to sound in his paintings. The palette, which is dominated by red and golden shades, also changes.

The canvas “David and Jonathan” (1642, Hermitage, St. Petersburg), executed in golden-pink and golden-blue tones, is distinguished by its vivid expressiveness.

All these new features in Rembrandt’s painting did not meet with understanding among his contemporaries. The large monumental composition “Night Watch” (1642) caused discontent. The painting received this name in the 19th century. In fact, the action takes place not at night, but during the day, in sunlight, which confirms the nature of the shadows.

Over time, the colors darkened, and only restoration carried out in 1946-1947 showed that the color scheme of this work was once much lighter.

The painting depicts the riflemen of Captain Banning Coke's company. The customer expected to see a traditional ceremonial portrait(a scene of a feast or a commander presenting his subordinates to the viewer). Rembrandt created a geo-
roico-historical painting depicting the performance of riflemen on the orders of the captain. The characters are excited and dynamic; the commander gives orders, the standard bearer raises the banner, the drummer beats the drum, the riflemen load their weapons. Here a little girl with a rooster at her belt is spinning around out of nowhere.

During these years, Hendrikje Stoffels appeared in Rembrandt's life, first a maid, and then his wife, who became his faithful friend and assistant. The artist still works a lot. He creates his famous " Holy family"(1645), in which the religious theme is interpreted as a genre theme. Along with biblical compositions, the painter performs realistic landscapes with images of the village (“Winter View”, 1646). His portraits of this period are distinguished by their desire to show personality traits models.

In the 1650s. the number of orders is significantly reduced. Rembrandt is experiencing great financial difficulties. He faces complete ruin, because the debt associated with the purchase of a house during the life of his first wife, Saskia, has still not been paid. In 1656, the artist was declared insolvent, and his art collection and all his property were sold at auction. Rembrandt's family had to move to the poor Jewish quarter of Amsterdam.

Despite all the adversities, the talent of the great painter does not dry out. But now the criterion of his skill is completely different. In Rembrandt's later works, colorful strokes appear sharply on the surface of the canvas. Now the colors in his paintings serve not only to convey appearance characters and images of the interior - it is the coloring that takes on the semantic load of the work. Thus, the feeling of intense drama in the painting “Assur, Haman and Esther” (1660) is created through a complex tonal range and special lighting effects.

Deprived of orders, living in deep poverty, Rembrandt does not stop writing. He creates expressive and spiritual portraits, for which relatives and friends serve as models (“Portrait of the artist’s brother’s wife”, 1654; “Portrait of an old man in red”, 1652-1654; “Portrait of the son Titus reading”, 1657; “Portrait of Hendrikje Stoffels at windows", ca. 1659).

The son Titus, who has finally received the fortune of his deceased mother, is trying to protect his father from material deprivation and create conditions for him to work peacefully. But misfortunes continued to haunt the artist: Hendrickje died in 1663, and Titus followed her a few years later.

It was during this tragic time that the old, lonely artist created his masterpieces, distinguished by their monumental grandeur and spirituality (“David and Uriah,” 1665-1666; “The Return of the Prodigal Son,” c. 1668-1669).

Rembrandt died in 1669, forgotten by everyone. Only in the 18th century. his art was finally understood and appreciated.

In the 1640-1660s. leader in Dutch painting was everyday genre. The paintings depicting the most ordinary moments of reality are surprisingly poetic and lyrical. The main object of attention of painters is man and the world around him. Most genre compositions are distinguished by a calm narrative and lack of drama. They talk about the household chores of the mistress of the house (buying provisions, taking care of children, doing handicrafts), about the entertainment of the Dutch burgher (playing cards, receiving guests, concerts). Artists depict everything that happens in the house of a wealthy city dweller, ignoring the social side of a person’s life.

Genre painters were very popular: G. Dou, whose paintings were sold at very high prices, A. van Ostade, who painted scenes of peasant life (“Country Concert”), J. Steen, whose favorite themes were scenes of fun and holidays (“Merry Society” ), G. Terborch, whose elegant painting represented the life of a rich burgher family (“A Glass of Lemonade”), G. Metsu with his ingenuous storytelling (“Sick Child”), P. de Hooch, who created contemplative and lyrical canvases (“Mistress and Maid ").

K. Fabritius, who lived a short life (died in Delft in the explosion of a gunpowder warehouse), sought to expand the scope of the everyday genre. One of his best works is “The Raising of Lazarus” (c. 1643), notable for its drama and almost monumental scope. His portraits and self-portraits are also remarkable, putting the artist on a par with F. Hals and Rembrandt.

The fate of E. de Fabricius, a talented master of everyday scenes and works depicting church interiors (“Market in the port”, “Interior with a woman at the harpsichord”) is tragic. The artist did not seek to pander to the tastes of the bourgeois public, so his works, which were not successful with his contemporaries, were sold for pennies. Often Fabricius was forced to pay them off for debts to homeowners. On a winter night in 1692, a seventy-five-year-old artist, thrown out of his house by his owner, hanged himself on the railing of a bridge. A similar fate was typical for many Dutch painters who did not want to give up realistic traditions to please the public.

Jan Wermeer of Delft

A prominent representative of Dutch genre painting is Jan Vermeer, nicknamed Delft after his place of birth and activity. The painter was born in 1623 into the family of a painting and silk merchant. Little is known about Wermeer's life. Perhaps his teacher was C. Fabricius. In 1653, the artist became a member of the Guild of St. Luke and married the daughter of a wealthy townsman, Catherine Bolnes. In Delft he enjoyed respect and fame and lived in a large house located on the market square.

Vermeer worked on his paintings very slowly and thoroughly, carefully recording every detail. Painting could not provide a comfortable existence for the artist’s family, although his canvases enjoyed great success. This is probably why Vermeer began selling paintings, continuing his father’s work.

Already in Vermeer’s first works, a combination of realism and a certain amount of idealization of images, characteristic of his work, appears (“Diana with the Nymphs”, “Christ with Martha and Mary” - both before 1656). The next work, a large-figure canvas “At the Pimp” (1656), painted on a plot used by many painters, is distinguished by its originality of execution. An ordinary everyday scene for the artist acquires almost monumental significance. The painting stands out among other works with a similar theme for its bold coloring, sustained in pure yellow, red, black and white colors, and the bright expressiveness of the images.

Subsequently, Vermeer turned to chamber compositions traditional for Dutch painting. Like other Dutch masters, he depicts events taking place in rich burgher houses. The artist’s favorite image is of a girl reading a letter or trying on a necklace. His canvases depict simple everyday scenes: a maid gives a letter to her mistress, a gentleman brings a glass of wine to the lady. But these paintings, simple in composition, amaze with their integrity, harmony and lyricism; their images attract with their naturalness and calm poetry.

In the second half of the 1650s. the artist created his most wonderful works. The deeply lyrical “Sleeping Girl”, “Glass of Wine”, “Girl with a Letter” are marked with a warm feeling. Many Dutch painters of this time they depicted in their paintings busy with work maids, but only Wermeer’s image of a woman from the people has features of true beauty and greatness (“Maid with a Jug of Milk”).

Vermeer is a true virtuoso in conveying the essence of the world of things with the help of visual arts. The still lifes in his paintings are executed with great skill. A dish with apples and plums, standing on a table covered with a patterned tablecloth in the canvas “Girl with a Letter,” looks amazingly beautiful and natural.

In the painting “The Maid with a Jug of Milk,” the bread and milk flowing in a thick stream from the jug amaze with their freshness.

Light plays a big role in Vermeer's works. It fills the space of the canvases, creating the impression of extraordinary airiness; models shapes and penetrates paints, making them glow from within. It is thanks to this amount of light and air that a special emotional elation is created in most of Vermeer’s works.

The painter’s remarkable skill was also evident in landscape painting. A small corner of the city, shrouded in a humid atmosphere cloudy day, reproduces the clear and simple composition of “Street” (c. 1658). The rain-washed city appears clean and fresh in the painting “View of Delft” (between 1658 and 1660). The sun's rays break through the soft silvery clouds, creating many bright reflections on the surface of the water. The sonorous coloring with its subtle color transitions gives the picture expressiveness and harmony.

In the 1660s. Vermeer's painting becomes more refined and elegant. The palette is also changing, now dominated by cool colorful shades (“Girl with a Pearl”). The main characters of the paintings are rich ladies and gentlemen surrounded by luxurious objects (“Love Letter”, ca. 1670).

Jan Wermeer of Delft. Maid with a jug of milk. Between 1657 and 1660
Jan Wermeer of Delft. Painter's workshop. OK. 1665

IN last period During the life of Vermeer, his works become superficial and somewhat far-fetched (“Allegory of Faith”), and the palette loses its richness and sonority. But even in these years individual works the artist is amazed by his former expressive power. Such is his “Painter's Workshop” (1665), in which Vermeer depicted himself at work, and the paintings “Astronomer” and “Geographer”, depicting scientists.

The fate of Vermeer, like many other Dutch masters, is tragic. At the end of his life, the sick artist, who had lost most of his previous customers, was forced to move his big family from your previous home to a cheaper home. Over the past five years he has not painted a single painting. The painter died in 1675. His art was forgotten for a long time, and only in mid-19th century V. Vermeer was appreciated and placed on a par with such Dutch masters, like Rembrandt and F. Hals.

Dutch artists made a great contribution to the work of masters who began their activities in the 17th century and did not stop until the present time. However, they had an influence not only on their colleagues, but also on professionals in literature (Valentin Proust, Donna Tartt) and photography (Ellen Kooi, Bill Gekas and others).

Beginning of development

In 1648, Holland gained independence, but for the formation of a new state, the Netherlands had to endure an act of revenge on the part of Spain, which killed about 10 thousand people in the Flemish city of Antwerp at that time. As a result of the massacre, the inhabitants of Flanders emigrated from the territories controlled by the Spanish authorities.

Based on this, it would be logical to recognize that the impetus for independent Dutch artists came precisely from Flemish creativity.

Since the 17th century, both state and artistic branches have occurred, leading to the formation of two schools of art, separated by nationality. They had common origin, but the signs differed quite significantly. While Flanders remained under the wings of Catholicism, Holland experienced a completely new prosperity, starting from the 17th century.

Dutch culture

In the 17th century, the new state had just embarked on the path of its development, completely breaking ties with the art of the past era.

The fight with Spain gradually subsided. The national mood began to be traced in popular circles as they moved away from the Catholic religion previously imposed by the authorities.

Protestant rule had a contradictory view of decoration, which led to a reduction in works on religious themes, and in the future only played into the hands of secular art.

Never before now has the real surrounding reality been depicted so often in paintings. In their works, Dutch artists wanted to show ordinary everyday life without embellishment, refined tastes and nobility.

The secular artistic explosion gave rise to such numerous directions as landscape, portrait, everyday genre and still life (the existence of which even the most developed centers of Italy and France did not know).

The Dutch artists' own vision of realism, expressed in portraits, landscapes, interior works and still life paintings, aroused interest in this skill from all levels of society.

So the Dutch art XVII century was nicknamed the "Golden Age of Dutch Painting", securing its status as the most outstanding era in painting in the Netherlands.

It is important to know: there is a misconception that Dutch school depicted only the mediocrity of human existence, but the masters of those times brazenly destroyed the framework with the help of their fantastic works(for example, "Landscape with John the Baptist" by Bloemaert).

Dutch artists of the 17th century. Rembrandt

Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn is considered to be one of the largest artistic figures in Holland. In addition to his activities as an artist, he was also engaged in engraving and was rightfully considered a master of chiaroscuro.

His legacy is rich in individual diversity: portraits, genre scenes, still lifes, landscapes, as well as paintings on subjects of history, religion and mythology.

His ability to master chiaroscuro allowed him to enhance the emotional expressiveness and spirituality of a person.

While working on portraits, he worked on human facial expressions.

Due to the heartbreaking tragic events of his late works were filled with a dim light that exposed people’s deep experiences, as a result of which brilliant works became of no interest to anyone.

At that time, they were in fashion external beauty without attempts to dive into depth, as well as naturalism, which is at odds with outright realism.

Every Russian fan can see the painting “The Return of the Prodigal Son” with his own eyes. visual arts, because this work located in the Hermitage of St. Petersburg.

Frans Hals

Frans Hals is a great Dutch artist and major portrait painter who helped introduce the genre of free writing into Russian art.

The work that brought him fame was the painting entitled “The Banquet of the Officers of the Rifle Company of St. George,” painted in 1616.

His portrait works were too natural for that time, which was at odds with the present day. Due to the fact that the artist remained misunderstood, he, like the great Rembrandt, ended his life in poverty. "The Gypsy" (1625-1630) is one of his most famous works.

Jan Steen

Jan Steen is one of the most witty and cheerful Dutch artists at first glance. Making fun of social vices, he loved to resort to the skill of satire of society. He, entertaining the viewer with harmless, funny images revelers and ladies of easy virtue, in fact, warned against such a lifestyle.

The artist also had calmer paintings, for example, the work “Morning Toilet,” which at first glance seemed like an absolutely innocent action. But if you look closely at the details, you can be quite surprised by their revelations: these are traces of stockings that previously squeezed the legs, and a pot filled with something indecent at night, as well as a dog that allows itself to be right on the owner’s pillow.

In the best own works the artist was ahead of his colleagues in his elegantly skillful combination of color palettes and mastery of shadows.

Other Dutch artists

This article listed only three bright people out of dozens worthy of being on the same list:

So, in this article you got acquainted with Dutch artists of the 17th century and their works.

"Burgher" Baroque in Dutch paintingXVII V. – depiction of everyday life (P. de Hooch, Vermeer). "Luxurious" still lifes by Kalf. Group portrait and its features by Hals and Rembrandt. Interpretation of mythological and biblical scenes by Rembrandt.

Dutch art of the 17th century

In the 17th century Holland has become a model capitalist country. It conducted extensive colonial trade, had a powerful fleet, and shipbuilding was one of the leading industries. Protestantism (Calvinism as its most severe form), which completely supplanted the influence of the Catholic Church, led to the fact that the clergy in Holland did not have the same influence on art as in Flanders, and especially in Spain or Italy. In Holland, the church did not play the role of a customer of works of art: churches were not decorated with altar images, for Calvinism rejected any hint of luxury; Protestant churches were simple in architecture and not decorated in any way inside.

The main achievement of Dutch art of the 18th century. - in easel painting. Man and nature were the objects of observation and depiction by Dutch artists. Household painting is becoming one of the leading genres, the creators of which in history received the name “Little Dutchmen”. Paintings based on gospel and biblical subjects are also represented, but not to the same extent as in other countries. In Holland there were never connections with Italy and classical art did not play such a role as in Flanders.

The mastery of realistic trends, the development of a certain range of themes, the differentiation of genres as a single process were completed by the 20s of the 17th century. History of Dutch painting of the 17th century. perfectly demonstrates the evolution of the work of one of the largest portrait painters in Holland, Frans Hals (circa 1580-1666). In the 10-30s, Hals worked a lot in the genre of group portraits. From the canvases of these years, cheerful, energetic, enterprising people look out, confident in their abilities and in the future (“The Shooting Guild of St. Adrian”, 1627 and 1633;

"Rifle Guild of St. George", 1627).

Researchers sometimes call Hals's individual portraits genre portraits due to the special specificity of the image. Hulse's sketchy style, his bold writing, when the brushstroke sculpts both shape and volume and conveys color.

In the portraits of Hals of the late period (50-60s), the carefree prowess, energy, and intensity in the characters of the depicted persons disappear. But it was in the late period of creativity that Hals reached the pinnacle of mastery and created the most profound works. The coloring of his paintings becomes almost monochrome. Two years before his death, in 1664, Hals again returned to the group portrait. He paints two portraits of the regents and regents of a nursing home, in one of which he himself found refuge at the end of his life. In the portrait of the regents there is no spirit of camaraderie of previous compositions, the models are disunited, powerless, they have dull glances, devastation is written on their faces.

Hals's art was of great importance for its time; it influenced the development of not only portraits, but also everyday genres, landscapes, and still lifes.

The landscape genre of Holland in the 17th century is especially interesting. Holland is depicted by Jan van Goyen (1596-1656) and Salomon van Ruisdael (1600/1603-1670).

The heyday of landscape painting in the Dutch school dates back to the middle of the 17th century. The greatest master of realistic landscape was Jacob van Ruisdael (1628/29-1682). His works are usually full of deep drama, whether he depicts forest thickets (“Forest Swamp”),

landscapes with waterfalls (“Waterfall”) or a romantic landscape with a cemetery (“Jewish Cemetery”).

Ruisdael's nature appears in dynamics, in eternal renewal.

The animalistic genre is closely related to the Dutch landscape. Albert Cuyp's favorite motif is cows at a watering hole (“Sunset on the River”, “Cows on the Bank of a Stream”).

Still life achieves brilliant development. Dutch still life, in contrast to Flemish, is a painting of an intimate nature, modest in size and motifs. Pieter Claes (c. 1597-1661), Billem Heda (1594-1680/82) most often depicted so-called breakfasts: dishes with ham or pie on a relatively modestly served table. Kheda’s “breakfasts” are replaced by Kalf’s luxurious “desserts.” Simple utensils are replaced by marble tables, carpet tablecloths, silver goblets, vessels made of mother-of-pearl shells, and crystal glasses. Kalf achieves amazing virtuosity in conveying the texture of peaches, grapes, and crystal surfaces.

In the 20-30s of the 17th century. The Dutch created a special type of small small-figure painting. The 40-60s were the heyday of painting, glorifying the calm burgher life of Holland, measured everyday existence.

Adrian van Ostade (1610-1685) initially depicts the shadowy sides of the life of the peasantry (“The Fight”).

Since the 40s, satirical notes in his work have increasingly been replaced by humorous ones (“In a village tavern”, 1660).

Sometimes these small paintings are colored with a great lyrical feeling. Ostade’s “Painter in the Studio” (1663), in which the artist glorifies creative work, is rightfully considered a masterpiece of Ostade’s painting.

But the main theme of the “little Dutch” is still not peasant life, but burgher life. Usually these are images without any fascinating plot. The most entertaining narrator in films of this kind was Jan Stan (1626-1679) (“Revelers”, “Game of Backgammon”). Gerard Terborch (1617-1681) achieved even greater mastery in this.

The interior of the “little Dutch” becomes especially poetic. The real singer of this theme was Pieter de Hooch (1629-1689). His rooms with a half-open window, with shoes accidentally thrown or a broom left behind, are often depicted without a human figure.

A new stage of genre painting begins in the 50s and is associated with the so-called Delft school, with the names of such artists as Carel Fabricius, Emmanuel de Witte and Jan Wermeer, known in art history as Wermeer of Delft (1632-1675). Vermeer's paintings seem to be in no way original. These are the same images of frozen burgher life: reading a letter, a gentleman and a lady talking, maids doing simple housework, views of Amsterdam or Delft. These paintings are simple in action: “Girl Reading a Letter”,

"The gentleman and the lady at the spinet"

“The Officer and the Laughing Girl”, etc. - are full of spiritual clarity, silence and peace.

The main advantages of Vermeer as an artist are in the transmission of light and air. The dissolution of objects in a light-air environment, the ability to create this illusion, primarily determined the recognition and glory of Vermeer precisely in the 19th century.

Vermeer did something that no one did in the 17th century: he painted landscapes from life (“Street”, “View of Delft”).

They can be called the first examples of plein air painting.

The pinnacle of Dutch realism, the result of the pictorial achievements of Dutch culture in the 17th century, is the work of Rembrandt. Harmens van Rijn Rembrandt (1606-1669) was born in Leiden. In 1632, Rembrandt left for Amsterdam, the center of artistic culture in Holland, which naturally attracted the young artist. The 30s were the time of his greatest glory, the path to which was opened for the painter by a large commissioned painting of 1632 - a group portrait, also known as “The Anatomy of Doctor Tulp”, or “Anatomy Lesson”.

In 1634, Rembrandt married a girl from a wealthy family, Saskia van Uylenborch. The happiest period of his life begins. He becomes a famous and fashionable artist.

This entire period is shrouded in romance. Rembrandt’s worldview of these years is conveyed most clearly by the famous “Self-Portrait with Saskia on her Knees” (circa 1636). The whole canvas is permeated with frank joy of life and jubilation.

The Baroque language is closest to the expression of high spirits. And Rembrandt during this period was largely influenced by the Italian Baroque.

The characters in the 1635 painting “The Sacrifice of Abraham” appear before us from complex angles. The composition is highly dynamic, built according to all the rules of the Baroque.

In the same 30s, Rembrandt first began to seriously engage in graphics, primarily etching. Rembrandt's etchings are mainly biblical and evangelical subjects, but in his drawings, as a true Dutch artist, he often turns to the genre. At the turn of the early period of the artist’s work and his creative maturity, one of his most famous paintings appears before us, known as “The Night Watch” (1642) - a group portrait of the rifle company of Captain Banning Cock.

He expanded the scope of the genre, presenting rather a historical picture: upon an alarm signal, Banning Cock's detachment sets out on a campaign. Some are calm and confident, others are excited in anticipation of what is to come, but all bear the expression of general energy, patriotic enthusiasm, and the triumph of the civic spirit.

The group portrait painted by Rembrandt developed into a heroic image of the era and society.

The painting had already become so dark that it was considered to be a depiction of a night scene, hence its incorrect name. The shadow cast by the captain's figure on the lieutenant's light clothes proves that it is not night, but day.

With the death of Saskia in the same 1642, Rembrandt’s natural break with the patrician circles alien to him occurred.

The 40s and 50s are a time of creative maturity. During this period, he often turns to previous works in order to remake them in a new way. This was the case, for example, with “Danae,” which he painted back in 1636. By turning to the painting in the 40s, the artist intensified his emotional state.

He rewrote the central part with the heroine and the maid. Giving Danae a new gesture of a raised hand, he conveyed to her great excitement, an expression of joy, hope, appeal.

In the 40-50s, Rembrandt's mastery grew steadily. He chooses for interpretation the most lyrical, poetic aspects of human existence, that humanity that is eternal, all-human: maternal love, compassion. The Holy Scripture provides him with the most material, and from it - scenes of the life of the Holy Family. Rembrandt depicts simple life, ordinary people, as in the painting “The Holy Family”.

The last 16 years are the most tragic years of Rembrandt's life; he is ruined and has no orders. But these years were full of amazing creative activity, as a result of which picturesque images were created, exceptional in their monumental character and spirituality, deeply philosophical works. Even the small-sized works of Rembrandt from these years create the impression of extraordinary grandeur and true monumentality. The color acquires sonority and intensity. His colors seem to radiate light. Portraits of late Rembrandt are very different from portraits of the 30s and even 40s. These are extremely simple (half-length or generational) images of people close to the artist in their inner structure. Rembrandt achieved the greatest subtlety of characterization in his self-portraits, of which about a hundred have come down to us. The final piece in the history of group portraits was Rembrandt’s depiction of the elders of the cloth workshop - the so-called “Sindics” (1662), where, with meager means, Rembrandt created living and at the same time different human types, but most importantly, he was able to convey a sense of spiritual union, mutual understanding and interconnections between people.

During his mature years (mostly in the 50s), Rembrandt created his best etchings. As an etcher, he has no equal in world art. In all of them the images have a deep philosophical meaning; they tell about the mysteries of existence, about the tragedy of human life.

He does a lot of drawing. Rembrandt left behind 2000 drawings. These include sketches from life, sketches for paintings and preparations for etchings.

In the last quarter of the 17th century. the decline of the Dutch school of painting begins, the loss of its national identity, and from the beginning XVIII century The end of the great era of Dutch realism is coming.

In the 17th century, the Dutch school of painting became one of the leading in Europe. It was here, for the first time in the history of world art, that objects of the surrounding reality turned out to be a source of creative inspiration, and artistic design. IN Dutch art At this time, the formation of a whole system of genres, which began in the Renaissance, was completed. In portraits, everyday paintings, landscapes and still lifes, artists with rare skill and warmth conveyed their impressions of the surrounding nature and simple life. They reflected the collective image of Holland - a young republic that defended its independence in the war with Spain.

"Morning of a young lady." 1660 France Miris the Elder. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum

Paintings by artists on household topics(or genre paintings) depicting a person in a familiar, everyday setting, reflected established forms of life, behavior and communication of people belonging to various classes of Dutch society. Intended to decorate the interiors of the houses of merchants, artisans or wealthy peasants, paintings by Dutch artists were small in size. Artists made money by selling paintings that were painted with the possibility of detailed viewing at close range in mind. This, in turn, gave rise to a particularly careful, subtle style of writing.

"Society on the Terrace" 1620 Esais Van De Velde. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum

Throughout the 17th century, genre painting Holland has undergone significant evolution. During the period of its formation, at the beginning of the century, plots on the themes of leisure, entertainment of young rich Dutchmen, or scenes from the life of officers were common. Such paintings were called “banquets”, “societies”, “concerts”. Their painting was distinguished by its variegation of color and highly joyful tone. Works of this kind include the painting “Society on the Terrace” by Esaias van de Velde.

By the beginning of the 30s, the formation of the Dutch genre painting was completed. Crowded “societies” gave way to small-figured compositions. The image of the environment surrounding a person began to play a large role. There has been a division of genre painting along social lines: subjects on themes from the life of the bourgeoisie, and scenes from the life of peasants and the urban poor. Both paintings were intended to decorate the interior.

"Fight". 1637 Adrian Van Ostade. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum

One of the most famous artists who worked in the “peasant genre” was Adrian van Ostade. In the early period of his work, the depiction of peasants in his paintings was distinguished by an emphasized comic nature, sometimes reaching the point of caricature. Thus, in the painting “Fight”, those fighting, illuminated by harsh light, seem not to be living people, but to puppets, whose faces are like masks, distorted by grimaces of anger. The juxtaposition of cold and warm colors, sharp contrasts of light and shadow further enhance the impression of grotesqueness in the scene.

"Village Musicians". 1635 Adrian Van De Ostade 1635 Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum

In the 1650s, changes occurred in Adrian Ostade's painting. The artist turned to calmer subjects, depicting a person during his usual activities, most often in moments of rest. This is, for example, the interior painting “Village Musicians”. Ostade skillfully conveys the concentration of the “musicians” who are passionate about their work, depicting with barely noticeable humor the children watching them through the window. The variety and softness of the play of light and shadow, the greenish-brown color scheme unite people and their environment into a single whole.

"Winter View". 1640 Isaac Van Ostade. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum

Adrian’s brother Isaac van Ostade, who died early, also worked in the “peasant genre.” He depicted the life of rural Holland, in whose nature a person felt at home. The painting “Winter View” presents a typical Dutch landscape with a gray sky hanging heavily over the ground, a frozen river, on the banks of which a village is located.

"The patient and the doctor." 1660 Jan Steen. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum

The genre theme of the art of the Ostade brothers was continued by Jan Steen, a talented master who, with a sense of humor, noticed the characteristic details of life and relationships characters in his paintings. In the painting “Revelers,” the artist himself looks at the viewer cheerfully and slyly, sitting next to his wife, who fell asleep after have a fun feast. In the film “The Sick Woman and the Doctor,” Jan Steen skillfully reveals the plot of an imaginary illness through the facial expressions and gestures of the characters.

"Room in a Dutch House." Peter Janssens. Canvas, oil. State Hermitage Museum

In the fifties and sixties of the 17th century, the themes of genre paintings gradually narrowed. The figurative structure of the paintings changes. They become calmer, more intimate, more lyrical contemplation and quiet thoughtfulness appear in them. This stage is represented by the work of such artists as: Pieter de Hooch, Gerard Terborch, Gabriel Metsu, Peter Janssens. Their works embodied a poetic and somewhat idealized image of the everyday life of the Dutch bourgeoisie, which once fought for its rights and independence, and has now achieved sustainable prosperity. Thus, in the interior painting “Room in a Dutch House” by Pieter Janssens, a flooded sunlight a cozy room with sunbeams playing on the floor and walls; in the painting “The Old Lady by the Fireplace” by Jacob Vrel there is a room with a fireplace immersed in soft twilight. The choice of composition in the works of both artists emphasizes the unity of man and his environment.

"A glass of lemonade." 1664 Gerard Terborch. Host (transfer from tree), oil. State Hermitage Museum

During these years, Dutch genre artists for the first time tried to reflect the depth in their works. inner life person. In what happens daily life situations they found the opportunity to reflect the diverse world of subtle experiences. But this can only be seen with a careful and thorough examination of the picture. Thus, in Gerard Terborch’s painting “A Glass of Lemonade,” the subtle language of gestures, hand touches, and eye contact reveals a whole range of feelings and relationships between the characters.

"Breakfast". 1660 Gabriel Metsu. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum

The objective world begins to play a big role in genre paintings of this period. It no longer only characterizes the material and emotional environment of a person’s life, but also expresses the diversity of relationships between a person and the outside world. A set of objects, their location, a complex system symbols, as well as the gestures of the characters - everything plays a role in creating the figurative structure of the picture.

"Revelers." 1660 Jan Steen. Wood, oil. State Hermitage Museum

Dutch genre painting was not distinguished by a wide variety of subjects. Artists limited themselves to depicting only a certain range of characters and their activities. But, with their help, Dutch genre painting was able to convey a reliable image of morals, customs, and ideas about human life in the 17th century.

In preparing the publication, materials from open sources were used.