What is the name of the literary movement? Literary directions (theoretical material)
The term literary movement usually denotes a group of writers connected by a common ideological position and artistic principles, within one direction or artistic movement. Thus, modernism is the general name for various groups in the art and literature of the 20th century, which distinguishes a departure from classical traditions, the search for new aesthetic principles, a new approach to the depiction of existence, includes such movements as impressionism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, acmeism, futurism, imagism, etc.
The belonging of artists to one direction or movement does not exclude deep differences in their creative personalities. In turn, in the individual creativity of writers, the features of various literary movements and movements may appear. For example, O. Balzac, being a realist, creates romantic novel « Shagreen leather", and M. Yu. Lermontov, along with romantic works, writes realistic novel"Hero of our time."
Current - smaller unit literary process, often within a direction, is characterized by existence in a certain historical period and, as a rule, localization in certain literature. The movement is also based on a commonality of substantive principles, but the similarity of ideological and artistic concepts is more clearly manifested.
Often the commonality of artistic principles in a flow forms “ artistic system" Yes, within French classicism There are two currents. One is based on the tradition of rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes (“Cartesian rationalism”), which includes the works of P. Corneille, J. Racine, N. Boileau. Another movement, based primarily on the sensualist philosophy of P. Gassendi, expressed itself in ideological principles such writers as J. Lafontaine, J. B. Moliere.
In addition, both flows differ in the system used artistic means. In romanticism, two main movements are often distinguished - “progressive” and “conservative”, but there are other classifications.
The writer’s belonging to one or another direction or current (as well as the desire to remain outside the existing movements of literature) presupposes a free, personal expression of the author’s worldview, his aesthetic and ideological positions.
This fact is associated with the rather late emergence of directions and currents in European literature- the period of New Time, when the personal, authorial principle becomes leading in literary creativity. This is the fundamental difference between the modern literary process and the development of literature of the Middle Ages, in which the content and formal features of texts were “predetermined” by tradition and “canon”.
The peculiarity of directions and trends is that these communities are based on the deep unity of philosophical, aesthetic and other substantive principles of largely different, individually authored artistic systems.
Directions and currents should be distinguished from literary schools(and literary groups).
Introduction to literary criticism (N.L. Vershinina, E.V. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin, etc.) / Ed. L.M. Krupchanov. - M, 2005
2) SentimentalismSentimentalism is a literary movement that recognized feeling as the main criterion of human personality. Sentimentalism arose in Europe and Russia approximately simultaneously, in the second half of the 18th century, as a counterweight to the rigid classical theory that was dominant at that time.
Sentimentalism was closely associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment. He gave priority to manifestations spiritual qualities man, psychological analysis, sought to awaken in the hearts of readers an understanding of human nature and love for it, along with a humane attitude towards all the weak, suffering and persecuted. The feelings and experiences of a person are worthy of attention regardless of his class affiliation - the idea of universal equality of people.
The main genres of sentimentalism:
story
elegy
novel
letters
trips
memoirs
England can be considered the birthplace of sentimentalism. Poets J. Thomson, T. Gray, E. Jung tried to awaken in readers a love for the surrounding nature, depicting simple and peaceful rural landscapes in their works, sympathy for the needs of poor people. A prominent representative of English sentimentalism was S. Richardson. He put psychological analysis in the first place and attracted the attention of readers to the fate of his heroes. The writer Lawrence Stern preached humanism as the highest human value.
In French literature sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbé Prevost, P. C. de Chamblen de Marivaux, J.-J. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre.
IN German literature– works by F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, J. V. Goethe, I. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.
Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A.N. Radishchev, “Letters of a Russian Traveler” and “ Poor Lisa» N.I. Karamzin.
3) Romanticism
Romanticism originated in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. as a counterbalance to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws. Romanticism, in contrast to classicism, promoted deviations from the rules. The prerequisites for romanticism lie in the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, which overthrew the power of the bourgeoisie, and with it, bourgeois laws and ideals.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, great attention paid attention to a person’s personality, his feelings and experiences. Main conflict Romanticism was about the confrontation between the individual and society. Against the background of scientific and technological progress and an increasingly complex social and political system, there was a spiritual devastation of the individual. Romantics sought to attract the attention of readers to this circumstance, to provoke a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.
The Romantics became disillusioned with the world around them, and this disappointment is clearly visible in their works. Some of them, such as F. R. Chateaubriand and V. A. Zhukovsky, believed that a person cannot resist mysterious forces, must submit to them and not try to change his destiny. Other romantics, such as J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, S. Petofi, A. Mickiewicz, and the early A. S. Pushkin, believed that it was necessary to fight the so-called “world evil” and contrasted it with the strength of the human spirit.
The inner world of the romantic hero was full of experiences and passions; throughout the entire work, the author forced him to struggle with the world around him, duty and conscience. Romantics depicted feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, despicable envy, base ambition. But the romantics were interested not only in the inner world of man, but also in the mysteries of existence, the essence of all living things, perhaps that is why there is so much mystical and mysterious in their works.
In German literature, romanticism was most clearly expressed in the works of Novalis, W. Tieck, F. Hölderlin, G. Kleist, E. T. A. Hoffmann. English romanticism is represented by the works of W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, R. Southey, W. Scott, J. Keats, J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley. In France, romanticism appeared only in the early 1820s. The main representatives were F. R. Chateaubriand, J. Stael, E. P. Senancourt, P. Mérimée, V. Hugo, J. Sand, A. Vigny, A. Dumas (father).
The development of Russian romanticism was greatly influenced by the Great French Revolution And Patriotic War 1812 Romanticism in Russia is usually divided into two periods - before and after the Decembrist uprising in 1825. Representatives of the first period (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin during the period of southern exile) believed in victory spiritual freedom over everyday life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and exile romantic hero turns into a person rejected and misunderstood by society, and the conflict between the individual and society becomes insoluble. Prominent representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratynsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev.
Main genres of romanticism:
Elegy
Idyll
Ballad
Novella
Novel
Fantastic story
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
The idea of two worlds is a struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. In realism this concept is absent. The idea of dual worlds has two modifications:
escape into the world of fantasy;
travel, road concept.
Hero concept:
the romantic hero is always an exceptional person;
the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
the hero's dissatisfaction, which manifests itself in the lyrical tone;
aesthetic determination towards an unattainable ideal.
Psychological parallelism is the identity of the hero’s internal state with the surrounding nature.
Speech style of a romantic work:
extreme expression;
the principle of contrast at the composition level;
abundance of symbols.
Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
rejection of bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; the romantics denied a value system that was based on stability, hierarchy, a strict value system (home, comfort, Christian morality);
cultivating individuality and artistic worldview; reality rejected by romanticism was subject to subjective worlds based on creative imagination artist.
4) Realism
Realism is a literary movement that objectively reflects the surrounding reality using the artistic means available to it. The main technique of realism is the typification of facts of reality, images and characters. Realist writers place their heroes in certain conditions and show how these conditions influenced the personality.
While romantic writers were concerned about the discrepancy between the world around them and their inner worldview, a realist writer is interested in how the world around us influences personality. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are determined by life circumstances, in other words, if a person lived in a different time, in a different place, in a different socio-cultural environment, then he himself would be different.
The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC e. Instead of the concept of “realism”, he used the concept of “imitation”, which is close in meaning to him. Realism was then revived during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In the 40s 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.
Depending on the meaningful motives recreated in the work, there are:
critical (social) realism;
realism of characters;
psychological realism;
grotesque realism.
Critical realism focused on the real circumstances that influence a person. Examples of critical realism are the works of Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. . P. Chekhov.
Characteristic realism, on the contrary, showed a strong personality who can fight against circumstances. Psychological realism paid more attention to the inner world and the psychology of heroes. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.
In grotesque realism, deviations from reality are allowed; in some works, deviations border on fantasy, and the greater the grotesque, the more strongly the author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism was developed in the works of Aristophanes, F. Rabelais, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical stories of N.V. Gogol, the works of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M.A. Bulgakov.
5) Modernism
Modernism is a set of artistic movements that promoted freedom of expression. Modernism originated in Western Europe in the second half of the 19th century. How new form creativity, opposed to traditional art. Modernism manifested itself in all types of art - painting, architecture, literature.
Home distinctive feature modernism is its ability to change the world around it. The author does not seek to depict reality realistically or allegorically, as was the case in realism, or inner world the hero, as was the case in sentimentalism and romanticism, but depicts his own inner world and his own attitude to the surrounding reality, expresses personal impressions and even fantasies.
Features of modernism:
denial of the classical artistic heritage;
a declared discrepancy with the theory and practice of realism;
focus on the individual, not the social person;
increased attention to the spiritual rather than the social sphere of human life;
focus on form at the expense of content.
The largest movements of modernism were impressionism, symbolism and art nouveau. Impressionism sought to capture a moment as the author saw or felt it. In this author's perception, the past, present and future can be intertwined; what is important is the impression that an object or phenomenon has on the author, and not this object itself.
Symbolists tried to find a secret meaning in everything that happened, endowing familiar images and words with mystical meaning. The Art Nouveau style promoted the rejection of regular geometric shapes and straight lines in favor of smooth and curved lines. Art Nouveau manifested itself especially clearly in architecture and applied arts.
In the 80s 19th century a new trend of modernism - decadence - was born. In the art of decadence, a person is placed in unbearable circumstances, he is broken, doomed, and has lost his taste for life.
The main features of decadence:
cynicism (nihilistic attitude towards universal human values);
eroticism;
tonatos (according to Z. Freud - the desire for death, decline, decomposition of personality).
In literature, modernism is represented by the following movements:
Acmeism;
symbolism;
futurism;
imagism.
Most prominent representatives modernism in literature are the French poets C. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, Russian poets N. Gumilev, A. A. Blok, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, English writer O. Wilde, American writer E. Poe, Scandinavian playwright G. Ibsen.
6) Naturalism
Naturalism is the name of a movement in European literature and art that emerged in the 70s. XIX century and especially widely developed in the 80-90s, when naturalism became the most influential movement. The theoretical basis for the new trend was given by Emile Zola in his book “The Experimental Novel.”
End of the 19th century (especially the 80s) marks the flourishing and strengthening of industrial capital, developing into financial capital. This corresponds, on the one hand, high level technology and increased exploitation, on the other - the growth of self-awareness and class struggle of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is turning into a reactionary class, fighting a new revolutionary force - the proletariat. The petty bourgeoisie fluctuates between these main classes, and these fluctuations are reflected in the positions of the petty bourgeois writers who adhere to naturalism.
The main requirements made by naturalists for literature: scientific, objective, apolitical in the name of “universal truth.” Literature must be at the level modern science, must be imbued with scientific character. It is clear that naturalists base their works only on science that does not deny the existing social system. Naturalists make the basis of their theory mechanistic natural-scientific materialism of the type of E. Haeckel, G. Spencer and C. Lombroso, adapting the doctrine of heredity to the interests of the ruling class (heredity is declared the cause of social stratification, giving advantages to some over others), the philosophy of positivism of Auguste Comte and petty-bourgeois utopians (Saint-Simon).
By objectively and scientifically demonstrating the shortcomings of modern reality, French naturalists hope to influence the minds of people and thereby bring about a series of reforms in order to save the existing system from the impending revolution.
The theorist and leader of French naturalism, E. Zola included G. Flaubert, the Goncourt brothers, A. Daudet and a number of other lesser-known writers in the natural school. Zola considered the French realists: O. Balzac and Stendhal to be the immediate predecessors of naturalism. But in fact, none of these writers, not excluding Zola himself, was a naturalist in the sense in which Zola the theorist understood this direction. Naturalism as the style of the leading class was temporarily embraced by writers very heterogeneous both in artistic method and in belonging to various class groupings. It is characteristic that the unifying moment was not artistic method, namely the reformist tendencies of naturalism.
Followers of naturalism are characterized by only partial recognition of the set of demands put forward by the theorists of naturalism. Following one of the principles of this style, they start from others, differing sharply from each other, representing both different social trends and different artistic methods. A whole series followers of naturalism accepted its reformist essence, without hesitation discarding even such a typical requirement for naturalism as the requirement of objectivity and accuracy. This is what the German “early naturalists” did (M. Kretzer, B. Bille, W. Belsche and others).
Under the sign of decay and rapprochement with impressionism, naturalism began to develop further. Arose in Germany somewhat later than in France, German naturalism was a predominantly petty-bourgeois style. Here, the decomposition of the patriarchal petty bourgeoisie and the intensification of capitalization processes are creating more and more new cadres of the intelligentsia, which do not always find application for themselves. Disillusionment with the power of science is becoming more and more widespread among them. Hopes for resolving social contradictions within the framework of the capitalist system are gradually being crushed.
German naturalism, as well as naturalism in Scandinavian literature, represents entirely a transitional stage from naturalism to impressionism. Thus, the famous German historian Lamprecht, in his “History of the German People,” proposed calling this style “physiological impressionism.” This term is subsequently used by a number of historians of German literature. Indeed, all that remains of the naturalistic style known in France is a reverence for physiology. Many German nature writers do not even try to hide their bias. At its center there is usually some problem, social or physiological, around which facts are grouped that illustrate it (alcoholism in Hauptmann's Before Sunrise, heredity in Ibsen's Ghosts).
The founders of German naturalism were A. Goltz and F. Schlyaf. Their basic principles are set out in Goltz's brochure "Art", where Goltz states that "art tends to become nature again, and it becomes it in accordance with the existing conditions of reproduction and practical application." The complexity of the plot is also denied. The place of the eventful novel of the French (Zola) is taken by a short story or short story, extremely poor in plot. The main place here is given to the painstaking transmission of moods, visual and auditory sensations. The novel is also being replaced by drama and poetry, which French naturalists viewed extremely negatively as a “kind of entertaining art.” Special attention is given to drama (G. Ibsen, G. Hauptmann, A. Goltz, F. Shlyaf, G. Suderman), in which intensively developed action is also denied, only the catastrophe and recording of the experiences of the heroes are given ("Nora", "Ghosts", "Before Sunrise", "Master Elze" and others). Subsequently, naturalistic drama is reborn into impressionistic, symbolic drama.
In Russia, naturalism did not receive any development. They were called naturalistic early works F. I. Panferova and M. A. Sholokhova.
7) Natural school
Under natural school literary criticism understands the direction that arose in Russian literature in the 40s. 19th century This was an era of increasingly aggravated contradictions between the serfdom and the growth of capitalist elements. The followers of the natural school tried to reflect the contradictions and moods of that time in their works. The term “natural school” itself appeared in criticism thanks to F. Bulgarin.
The natural school in the expanded use of the term, as it was used in the 40s, does not denote a single direction, but is a largely conditional concept. The natural school included writers as diverse in their class basis and artistic appearance as I. S. Turgenev and F. M. Dostoevsky, D. V. Grigorovich and I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panaev.
Most common features, on the basis of which the writer was considered to belong to the natural school, were the following: socially significant topics that captured more wide circle, than even a circle of social observations (often in the “low” strata of society), a critical attitude towards social reality, realism of artistic expression, which fought against the embellishment of reality, aesthetics, and romantic rhetoric.
V. G. Belinsky highlighted the realism of the natural school, asserting the most important feature of the “truth” and not the “false” of the image. The natural school does not appeal to ideal, fictitious heroes, but to the “crowd,” to the “mass,” to ordinary people and, most often, to people of “low rank.” Common in the 40s. all sorts of “physiological” essays satisfied this need to reflect a different, non-noble life, even if only in a reflection of the external, everyday, superficial.
N. G. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as the most essential and main feature of the “literature of the Gogol period” its critical, “negative” attitude to reality - “literature of the Gogol period” is here another name for the same natural school: specifically to N. V. Gogol - to the author" Dead souls", "The Inspector General", "Overcoat" - as the founder of the natural school, V. G. Belinsky and a number of other critics erected it. Indeed, many writers ranked as part of the natural school experienced a powerful influence various sides creativity of N.V. Gogol. In addition to Gogol, the writers of the natural school were influenced by such representatives of the Western European petty bourgeois and bourgeois literature, like C. Dickens, O. Balzac, George Sand.
One of the trends of the natural school, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social strata adjacent to it, was distinguished by the superficial and cautious nature of its criticism of reality: this was either harmless irony in relation to certain aspects of noble reality or a noble-limited protest against serfdom. The range of social observations of this group was limited to the manor’s estate. Representatives of this trend of the natural school: I. S. Turgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev.
Another current of the natural school relied primarily on the urban philistinism of the 40s, which was disadvantaged, on the one hand, by the still tenacious serfdom, and on the other, by growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to F. M. Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and stories ("Poor People", "The Double" and others).
The third movement in the natural school, represented by the so-called “raznochintsy”, ideologists of revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in its work the clearest expression of the tendencies that were associated by contemporaries (V.G. Belinsky) with the name of the natural school and opposed the noble aesthetics. These tendencies manifested themselves most fully and sharply in N. A. Nekrasov. A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“A Confused Case”) should also be included in this group.
8) Constructivism
Constructivism is an artistic movement that originated in Western Europe after the First World War. The origins of constructivism lie in the thesis of the German architect G. Semper, who argued that the aesthetic value of any work of art is determined by the correspondence of its three elements: the work, the material from which it is made, and the technical processing of this material.
This thesis, which was subsequently adopted by functionalists and functionalist constructivists (L. Wright in America, J. J. P. Oud in Holland, W. Gropius in Germany), brings to the fore the material-technical and material-utilitarian side of art and, in essence, the ideological side of it is emasculated.
In the West, constructivist tendencies during the First World War and post-war period expressed themselves in a variety of directions, more or less “orthodox” interpretation of the main thesis of constructivism. Thus, in France and Holland, constructivism was expressed in “purism”, in “machine aesthetics”, in “neoplasticism” (iso-art), and in the aestheticizing formalism of Corbusier (in architecture). In Germany - in the naked cult of the thing (pseudo-constructivism), the one-sided rationalism of the Gropius school (architecture), abstract formalism (in non-objective cinema).
In Russia, a group of constructivists appeared in 1922. It included A. N. Chicherin, K. L. Zelinsky, I. L. Selvinsky. Constructivism was initially a narrowly formal movement, highlighting the understanding of a literary work as a construction. Subsequently, the constructivists freed themselves from this narrow aesthetic and formal bias and put forward much broader justifications for their creative platform.
A. N. Chicherin moved away from constructivism, a number of authors grouped around I. L. Selvinsky and K. L. Zelinsky (V. Inber, B. Agapov, A. Gabrilovich, N. Panov), and in 1924 a literary center was organized Constructivists (LCC). In its declaration, the LCC primarily proceeds from the statement of the need for art to participate as closely as possible in the “organizational onslaught of the working class,” in the construction of socialist culture. This is where constructivism aims to saturate art (in particular, poetry) with modern themes.
The main theme, which has always attracted the attention of constructivists, can be described as follows: “Intelligentsia in revolution and construction.” Dwelling with special attention on the image of the intellectual in the civil war (I. L. Selvinsky, “Commander 2”) and in construction (I. L. Selvinsky “Pushtorg”), constructivists first of all put forward in a painfully exaggerated form its specific weight and significance in the process of construction. This is especially clear in Pushtorg, where the exceptional specialist Poluyarov is contrasted with the mediocre communist Krol, who prevents him from working and drives him to suicide. Here the pathos of the work technique as such obscures the main social conflicts of modern reality.
This exaggeration of the role of the intelligentsia finds its theoretical development in the article of the main theorist of constructivism Cornelius Zelinsky “Constructivism and Socialism”, where he considers constructivism as a holistic worldview of the era transition to socialism, as a condensed expression in the literature of the period being experienced. At the same time, again, the main social contradictions of this period, Zelinsky is replaced by the struggle between man and nature, the pathos of naked technology, interpreted outside of social conditions, outside of the class struggle. These erroneous positions of Zelinsky, which caused a sharp rebuff from Marxist criticism, were far from accidental and with great clarity revealed the social nature of constructivism, which is easy to outline in the creative practice of the entire group.
The social source feeding constructivism is, undoubtedly, that layer of the urban petty bourgeoisie, which can be designated as a technically qualified intelligentsia. It is no coincidence that in the work of Selvinsky (who is the most prominent poet of constructivism) of the first period, the image of a strong individuality, a powerful builder and conqueror of life, individualistic in its very essence, characteristic of the Russian bourgeois pre-war style, is undoubtedly revealed.
In 1930, the LCC disintegrated, and in its place the “Literary Brigade M. 1” was formed, declaring itself a transitional organization to RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), aiming at the gradual transition of fellow travelers to the rails of communist ideology, to the style of proletarian literature and condemning the previous mistakes of constructivism, although preserving its creative method.
However, the contradictory and zigzag nature of constructivism’s progress towards the working class makes itself felt here too. This is evidenced by Selvinsky’s poem “Declaration of the Rights of the Poet.” This is confirmed by the fact that the M. 1 brigade, having existed for less than a year, also disbanded in December 1930, admitting that it had not resolved the tasks set for itself.
9)Postmodernism
Postmodernism translated from German language literally means "that which follows modernism". This literary movement appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It reflects the complexity of the surrounding reality, its dependence on the culture of previous centuries and the information saturation of our time.
Postmodernists were not happy that literature was divided into elite and mass literature. Postmodernism opposed all modernity in literature and denied mass culture. The first works of postmodernists appeared in the form of detective, thriller, and fantasy, behind which serious content was hidden.
Postmodernists believed that highest art ended. To move forward, you need to learn how to properly use the lower genres of pop culture: thriller, western, fantasy, science fiction, erotica. Postmodernism finds in these genres the source of a new mythology. Works become aimed at both the elite reader and the undemanding public.
Signs of postmodernism:
using previous texts as potential for one's own works ( large number quotes, you cannot understand a work if you do not know the literature of previous eras);
rethinking elements of the culture of the past;
multi-level text organization;
special organization of text (game element).
Postmodernism questioned the existence of meaning as such. On the other hand, the meaning of postmodern works is determined by its inherent pathos - criticism popular culture. Postmodernism tries to erase the boundary between art and life. Everything that exists and has ever existed is text. Postmodernists said that everything had already been written before them, that nothing new could be invented and they could only play with words, take ready-made (already once thought up or written by someone) ideas, phrases, texts and assemble works from them. This makes no sense, because the author himself is not in the work.
Literary works are like a collage, composed of disparate images and united into a whole by the uniformity of technique. This technique is called pastiche. This Italian word translated as medley opera, and in literature it refers to the juxtaposition of several styles in one work. At the first stages of postmodernism, pastiche is a specific form of parody or self-parody, but then it is a way of adapting to reality, a way of showing the illusory nature of mass culture.
Associated with postmodernism is the concept of intertextuality. This term was introduced by Y. Kristeva in 1967. She believed that history and society can be considered as a text, then culture is a single intertext that serves as an avant-text (all texts that precede this one) for any newly appearing text, while individuality is lost here text that dissolves in quotes. Modernism is characterized by quotational thinking.
Intertextuality– the presence of two or more texts in the text.
Paratext– the relationship of the text to the title, epigraph, afterword, preface.
Metatextuality– these can be comments or a link to the pretext.
Hypertextuality– ridicule or parody of one text by another.
Archtextuality– genre connection of texts.
Man in postmodernism is depicted in a state of complete destruction (in this case, destruction can be understood as a violation of consciousness). There is no character development in the work; the image of the hero appears in a blurred form. This technique is called defocalization. It has two goals:
avoid excessive heroic pathos;
to take the hero into the shadow: the hero does not come to the fore, he is not needed at all in the work.
Prominent representatives of postmodernism in literature are J. Fowles, J. Barth, A. Robbe-Grillet, F. Sollers, H. Cortazar, M. Pavich, J. Joyce and others.
LITERARY DIRECTION (METHOD)- a set of basic features of creativity that were formed and repeated during a certain historical period in the development of art.
At the same time, the features this direction can be traced among authors who worked in the eras preceding the formation of the movement itself (traits of romanticism in Shakespeare, features of realism in Fonvizin’s “The Minor”), as well as in subsequent eras (traits of romanticism in Gorky).
There are four main literary trends:CLASSICISM, ROMANTICISM, REALISM, MODERNISM.
LITERARY CURRENT- finer division compared to the direction; currents either represent branches of one direction ( German romanticism, French romanticism, Byronism in England, Karamzinism in Russia), or arise during the transition from one direction to another (sentimentalism).
MAIN LITERARY DIRECTIONS (METHODS) AND TRENDS
1. CLASSICISM
The main literary movement in Russia XVIII century.
Main features
- Imitation of examples of ancient culture.
- Strict construction rules works of art.Chapter II. Literary directions(methods) and currents 9
- Strict hierarchy of genres: high (ode, epic poem, tragedy); medium (satire, love letter); low (fable, comedy).
- Rigid boundaries between genders and genres.
- Creation ideal scheme social life And ideal images members of society (enlightened monarch, statesman, military man, woman).
Main genres in poetry
Ode, satire, historical poem.
The main rules for constructing dramatic works
- The rule of “three unities”: place, time, action.
- Division into positive and negative characters.
- The presence of a hero-reasoner (a character expressing the author’s position).
- Traditional roles: reasoner (hero-reasoner), first lover (hero-lover), second lover, ingénue, soubrette, deceived father, etc.
- Traditional denouement: the triumph of virtue and the punishment of vice.
- Five actions.
- Speaking names.
- Long moralizing monologues.
Main representatives
Europe - writer and thinker Voltaire; playwrights Corneille, Racine, Moliere; fabulist La Fontaine; poet Guys (France).
Russia - poets Lomonosov, Derzhavin, playwright Fonvizin (comedies "The Brigadier", 1769 and "The Minor", 1782).
Traditions of classicism in the literature of the 19th century
Krylov . Genre traditions of classicism in fables.
Griboyedov . Features of classicism in the comedy "Woe from Wit".
The main literary movement in Russia in the first third of the 19th century.
Main features
- Creation of an ideal dream world, fundamentally incompatible with real life, opposed to it.
- In the center of the image - human personality, her inner world, her attitude to the surrounding reality.
- Portrayal of an exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances.
- Denial of all the rules of classicism.
- The use of fiction, symbolism, the absence of everyday and historical motivations.
Main genres
Lyric poem, poem, tragedy, novel.
Main genres in Russian poetry
Elegy, message, song, ballad, poem.
Main representatives
Europe - Goethe, Heine, Schiller (Germany), Byron (England).
Russia - Zhukovsky.
Traditions of romanticism in the literature of the 19th-20th centuries
Griboyedov . Romantic traits in the characters of Sofia and Chatsky; a parody of Zhukovsky's ballads (Sofia's dream) in the comedy "Woe from Wit".
Pushkin . Romantic period of creativity (1813--1824); the image of the romantic poet Lensky and discussions of romanticism in the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin"; unfinished novel"Dubrovsky".
Lermontov . Romantic period of creativity (1828-І836); elements of romanticism in poems of the mature period (1837-1841); romantic motifs in the poems “Song about... the merchant Kalashnikov”, “Mtsyri”, “Demon”, in the novel “Hero of Our Time”; the image of the romantic poet Lensky in the poem "The Death of a Poet".
The main literary direction of the 2nd half of the XIX-XX centuries.
Main features
- Creation of typical (regular) characters.
- These characters act in typical everyday and historical settings.
- Life-like verisimilitude, fidelity to detail (in combination with conventional forms of artistic fantasy: symbol, grotesque, fantasy, myth).
In Russia, the emergence of realism began in the 1820s:
Krylov. Fables.
Griboyedov . Comedy "Woe from Wit" (1822 -1824).
Pushkin . Mikhailovsky (1824-1826) and late (1826-1836) periods of creativity: the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" (1823-1831), the tragedy "Boris Godunov" (1825), "Belkin's Tales" (1830), the poem " Bronze Horseman"(1833), story" Captain's daughter"(1833-1836); late lyrics.
Lermontov . Period mature creativity(1837-1841): novel “A Hero of Our Time” (1839-1841), late lyrics.
Gogol . "Petersburg Tales" (1835-1842; "The Overcoat", 1842), comedy "The Inspector General" (1835), poem " Dead Souls"(1st volume: 1835-1842).
Tyutchev, Fet . Features of realism in lyrics.
In the years 1839-1847, Russian realism was formed into a special literary movement, called the “natural school” or “Gogolian direction.” The natural school became the first stage in the development of a new movement in realism - Russian critical realism.
Programmatic works of writers of critical realism
Prose
Goncharov . The novel "Oblomov" (1848-1858).
Turgenev . The story "Asya" (1858), the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1861).
Dostoevsky . Novel "Crime and Punishment" (1866).
Leo Tolstoy . Epic novel "War and Peace" (1863-1869).
Saltykov-Shchedrin . "The History of a City" (1869--1870), "Tales" (1869-1886).
Leskov . The story "The Enchanted Wanderer" (1879), the story "Lefty" (1881).
Dramaturgy
Ostrovsky . Drama “The Thunderstorm” (1859), comedy “Forest” (1870).
Poetry
Nekrasov . Lyrics, poems “Peasant Children” (1861), “Who Lives Well in Rus'” (1863-1877).
The development of critical realism ends at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century:
Chekhov . Stories "Death of an Official" (1883), "Chameleon" (1884), "Student" (1894), "House with a Mezzanine" (1896), "Ionych", "Man in a Case", "Gooseberry", "About Love" , "Darling" (all 1898), "Lady with a Dog" (1899), comedy " Cherry Orchard" (1904).
Bitter . Essay " Former people"(1897), the story "Ice drift" (1912), the play "At the Bottom" (1902).
Bunin . The stories "Anton's Apples" (1900), "The Gentleman from San Francisco" (1915).
Kuprin . The story "Olesya" (1898), " Garnet bracelet" (1910).
After October Revolution The term "socialist realism" appears. However, creativity best writers the post-revolutionary period does not fit into the narrow framework of this movement and retains the traditional features of Russian realism:
Sholokhov . Novel " Quiet Don"(1925-1940), story "The Fate of Man" (1956).
Bulgakov . Tale " Heart of a Dog"(1925), novels" White Guard"(1922-1924), "The Master and Margarita" (1929-1940), the play "Days of the Turbins" (1925-1926).
Zamyatin . Dystopian novel "We" (1929).
Platonov . The story "The Pit" (1930).
Tvardovsky . Poems, poem "Vasily Terkin" (1941-1945).
Parsnip . Late lyrics, novel "Doctor Zhivago" (1945--1955).
Solzhenitsyn . The story "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich", story " Matrenin Dvor" (1959).
Shalamov . Cycle " Kolyma stories" (1954--1973).
Astafiev . The story "The Shepherd and the Shepherdess" (1967-1989).
Trifonov . The story "The Old Man" (1978).
Shukshin. Stories.
Rasputin . The story "Farewell to Matera" (1976).
5. MODERNISM
Modernism - a literary movement that unites various movements in art of the late 19th-20th centuries, engaged in experiments with the form of works of art (symbolism, Acmeism, futurism, cubism, constructivism, avant-gardeism, abstract art, etc.).
IMAGINISM (imago - image) is a literary movement in Russian poetry between 1919 and 1925, whose representatives stated that the goal of creativity is to create an image. Basics means of expression Imagists - metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements of two images - direct and figurative. The creator of the movement is Anatoly Borisovich Mariengof. Sergei Yesenin, who was a member of it, brought fame to the Imagist group.
POSTMODERNISM - various movements in the art of the 2nd half XX-beginning XXI centuries (conceptualism, pop art, social art, body art, graffiti, etc.), which put the denial of the integrity of life and art at all levels at the forefront. In Russian literature, the era of postmodernism opens with the almanac "Metropol", 1979; the most famous authors of the almanac:V.P. Aksenov, B.A. Akhmadulina, A.G. Bitov, A.A. Voznesensky, V.S. Vysotsky, F.A. Iskander.
(Symbol - from the Greek Symbolon - conventional sign)
- The central place is given to the symbol*
- The desire for a higher ideal prevails
- A poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon
- Characteristic reflection of the world in two planes: real and mystical
- Sophistication and musicality of verse
Acmeism
(From the Greek “acme” - point, highest point). Literary movement Acmeism arose in the early 1910s and was genetically linked to symbolism. (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich and V. Narbut.) The formation was influenced by M. Kuzmin’s article “On Beautiful Clarity,” published in 1910. In the programmatic article of 1913 “The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism” N. Gumilyov called symbolism “ worthy father“, but emphasized that the new generation has developed a “courageously firm and clear outlook on life”- Focus on classical poetry XIX century
- Acceptance earthly world in its diversity, visible concreteness
- Objectivity and clarity of images, precision of details
- In rhythm, the Acmeists used dolnik (Dolnik is a violation of the traditional regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The lines coincide in the number of stresses, but stressed and unstressed syllables are freely located in the line.), which brings the poem closer to the living colloquial speech
Futurism
Futurism - from lat. futurum, future. Genetically literary futurism closely associated with avant-garde groups of artists of the 1910s - primarily with the groups “Jack of Diamonds”, “Donkey’s Tail”, “Youth Union”. In 1909 in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the article “Manifesto of Futurism.” In 1912, the manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” was created by Russian futurists: V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov: “Pushkin is more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs.” Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.- Rebellion, anarchic worldview
- Denial of cultural traditions
- Experiments in the field of rhythm and rhyme, figurative arrangement of stanzas and lines
- Active word creation
