Scull consists of the brain and facial (visceral) sections. In the brain region there are roof, or vault, and base of the skull. IN cerebral department contains:

• brain,
• olfactory organs,
• organs of vision,
• organs of balance and hearing.

Facial section represents the bone basis for the initial part of the digestive and respiratory systems(oral cavity and nasal cavity).

The bones of the brain skull include:

• occipital bone,
• two parietals,
• frontal,
• main (or wedge-shaped),
• two temporal
• lattice,
• two inferior nasal turbinates,
• two tears,
• two nasals,
• opener

Occipital bone unpaired, located in the posterior part of the cranium and consists of four parts located around a large opening in the anterio-inferior part of the outer surface. The occipital bone is connected to the sphenoid, temporal and parietal bones.

Wedge-shaped bone unpaired, located in the center of the base of the skull. Has complex shape. It consists of a body, small and large wings and pterygoid processes.

Steam room temporal bone takes part in the formation of the base of the skull, lateral wall and vault. The organ of hearing and balance, the internal carotid artery, part of the sigmoid venous sinus, the vestibulocochlear and facial nerves, the trigeminal ganglion, branches of the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves are located here.

Parietal bone the steam room is flat, has a quadrangular shape and takes part in the formation of the upper and lateral parts of the cranial vault.

Unpaired frontal bone, participates in the formation of the anterior part of the vault and base of the skull, eye sockets, temporal fossa and nasal cavity. It has three parts: frontal scales, orbital Part And nasal Part. The frontal bone connects to the sphenoid, ethmoid and parietal bones.

Lattice bone the unpaired is also involved in the formation of the base of the skull, orbit and nasal cavity. It consists of two parts:

• cribriform or horizontal plate,
• perpendicular or vertical plate.

Facial department The skull is formed by paired bones:

• upper jaws,
• palatal,
• zygomatic,
• nasal,
• tearful,
• lower wasp shells.

And also unpaired:

• opener
• lower jaw.

The facial section also includes the hyoid bone.

Skeleton of the torso make up the spinal column and chest.

1 – skull; 2 – cervical vertebrae; 3 – collarbone; 4 – shoulder blade; 5 – humerus; 6 – thoracic vertebrae; 7 – lumbar vertebrae; 8 – ilium; 9 – sacrum; 10 – coccyx; 11 – pubic bone; 12 – ischium; 13 – femur; 14 – patella; 15 – tarsus; 16 – metatarsus; 17 – phalanges of the foot; 18 – tibia; 19 – fibula; 20 – phalanges of the hand; 21 – metacarpus; 22 – wrist; 23 – ulna; 24 – radius; 25 – ribs; 26 – sternum

Spinal column a person has an S-shape due to the presence of four bends. Two are convexly facing forward - this is cervical and lumbar lordosis, and two are facing backwards – thoracic and sacral kyphosis The presence of bends increases spring properties spinal column.

The spinal column has a slight frontal curve at the top thoracic which is called physiological, or aortic, scoliosis. It is located at the level of the III–V thoracic vertebrae, with its convexity facing to the right.

A - front view; B - middle cut; B - spinal column of a newborn; 1 - cervical vertebrae; 2 - thoracic vertebrae 3 - lumbar vertebrae 4 - sacral vertebrae (sacrum); 5 - coccygeal vertebrae; 6 - protruding vertebra: 7 - spinal canal; 8 - vertebral body; 9 - transverse processes of the vertebrae; 10 - spinous process; 11 - intervertebral foramen; 12 - sacral canal; 13 - cervical lordosis; 14 - thoracic kyphosis; 15 - lumbar lordosis; 16 - sacral kyphosis

Rib cage this is an osteochondral formation consisting of 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs and sternum, connected to each other by various types connections. The chest is expanded in the middle, with a predominance of the transverse size over the anteroposterior.

Limbs in vertebrates are organs of support and movement (locomotion). The limb skeleton is characterized as accessory skeleton. The general principles of its structure include:

• companence,
• dismemberment into rays,
• bilateral symmetry.

Each limb consists of several more or less movably interconnected links that have different structures. Distinguish limb girdle and free limb. The belt represents the connecting link between the free limb and the skeleton of the body. Femur in humans is the longest in the skeleton, accounting for almost a quarter of the body length. Foot human represents a specialized supporting structure. The human foot is pronated and is generally a twisted plate, which rests on the calcaneal tubercle in the back and on the heads of the metatarsal bones in front.

Limb bone connections . Despite the general similarity in the structure of the skeleton of both limbs, there are significant differences between them, which are due to the difference in functions. The pelvic limbs play the role of the main motor (for example, pushing off when jumping), and the thoracic limbs, along with support and locomotion, are used in grasping food and other behavioral reactions. Therefore, the joints of the thoracic limb, as a rule, have greater mobility, and the joints of the pelvic limb are characterized by stability.

Shoulder girdle connects to the sternum through sternoclavicular joint, it contains in its cavity articular disc. Between the scapula and the collarbone is acromioclavicular joint with ellipsoidal surfaces; which provides additional mobility of the shoulder girdle. Shoulder joint is the most “loose” of the large joints human body. Movements around all three axes can occur here on a large scale. Elbow joint contains 3 joints in one capsule:

• humeroulnar,
• brachioradialis,
• proximal radioulnar.

The elbow joint is a complex joint.

Bones of the forearm are connected to each other using continuous and discontinuous connections. Continuous connections- This is the interosseous membrane of the forearm, which connects the diaphyses of the ulna and radius bones. The discontinuous connections of the bones of the forearm are the proximal and distal radioulnar joints. They form a combined cylindrical joint with a vertical axis of rotation.

Wrist joint educated:

• distal end of the radius,
• articular disc stretched between the ulnar notch of the radius and the styloid process of the ulna,
• proximal row of carpal bones: scaphoid, lunate and triquetrum.

Midcarpal joint functionally connected to the wrist joint. The mating surfaces have a complex configuration.

Intercarpal joints the shape of the articular surfaces is flat, strengthened:

• palmar and dorsal intercarpal ligaments,
• interosseous intercarpal ligaments,
• radiate carpal ligament.

Carpometacarpal joints formed by the distal articular surfaces of the second row of carpal bones and the articular surfaces of the bases of the metacarpal bones.

Metacarpophalangeal joints The shape of the articular surfaces is spherical, but movement in them is possible around 2 axes - frontal and sagittal, and circular movement.

In contrast to the shoulder girdle, the girdle bones lower limb connected more firmly. The sacroiliac joint is a flat joint, but due to the presence of strong ligaments and the congruence of the articulating surfaces, movements in it are insignificant. It is classified as a “tight” connection, amphiarthrosis. Slight mobility of this joint persists until puberty, and in women even into adulthood.

Pelvic bones and sacrum, connecting through the sacroiliac joint and the pubic symphysis, form pelvis. This is a ring of bone, inside of which there is a cavity containing the entrails. The pelvic bones with the iliac wings turned to the sides provide reliable support for the spinal column and abdominal viscera. The pelvis is divided into big and small. The boundary between them is the boundary line. Big pelvis bounded posteriorly by the body of the fifth lumbar vertebra, on the sides by the wings iliac bones. The large pelvis has no walls in front.

Small pelvis this is a bone canal narrowed downwards. The upper aperture of the small pelvis is limited by the border line, and the lower one (exit from the small pelvis) is limited behind by the coccyx, on the sides by the sacrotuberous ligaments, ischial tuberosities, branches of the ischial bones, lower branches of the pubic bones, and in front by the pubic symphysis. The posterior wall of the pelvis is formed by the sacrum and coccyx, the anterior wall is formed by the lower and upper branches of the pubic bones and the pubic symphysis.

Hip joint The shape of the articular surfaces is cup-shaped and has 3 degrees of freedom. In the joint cavity there is a ligament of the femoral head and along the edge of the acetabulum - labrum. The range of motion in the joint is much less than in the shoulder. The limiter of movements is the powerful ligamentous apparatus.

In education knee joint 3 bones are involved: femur, tibia and patella. In the joint cavity there are 2 intra-articular (cruciate) ligaments and 2 menisci. Therefore, the joint is complex and complex.

Ankle joint is a typical trochlear joint. IN ankle joint movement around the frontal axis is possible - flexion and extension - with a total volume of 60–70°.

Intermetatarsal joints- flat, inactive.

Metatarsophalangeal joints similar to metacarpophalangeal. The joints are capable of flexion and extension, as well as slight abduction and adduction. Moreover, extension occurs in large sizes than bending. Interphalangeal joints similar to similar joints of the hand.

OPTION 1

OPTION 2

OPTION 1

1. Why are the skeleton and muscles classified as a single organ system? What are the supporting, protective and motor functions of the skeleton and muscles?

2. What is the significance of the fixed connection of the bones of the skull, with the exception of the lower jaw?

3. In what ways are fixed, semi-movable and movable bone connections made?

4. What is the significance physical exercise for normal development musculoskeletal system?

OPTION 2

1. What parts make up the musculoskeletal system? What are the structural features of the musculoskeletal system? What is the significance of the S-shaped curvature of the human spine?

2. What is the chemical composition of bones? How can you find out the properties of its components?

3. What parts does the joint consist of, what functions do these parts perform?

4. Why do bone bends occur more often in children, and fractures in older people? What should be done to avoid fractures and curvatures?

OPTION 1

1. Why are the skeleton and muscles classified as a single organ system? What are the supporting, protective and motor functions of the skeleton and muscles?

2. What is the significance of the fixed connection of the bones of the skull, with the exception of the lower jaw?

3. In what ways are fixed, semi-movable and movable bone connections made?

4. What is the importance of physical exercise for the normal development of the musculoskeletal system?

OPTION 2

1. What parts make up the musculoskeletal system? What are the structural features of the musculoskeletal system? What is the significance of the S-shaped curvature of the human spine?

2. What is the chemical composition of bones? How can you find out the properties of its components?

3. What parts does the joint consist of, what functions do these parts perform?

4. Why do bone bends occur more often in children, and fractures in older people? What should be done to avoid fractures and curvatures?

Biology lesson

Lesson No. 13 Topic: SKELETON OF THE LIMB BELT - ACCESSORY SKELETON. BONE JOINTS

Prepared and conducted in 8 classes

Biology teacher, Municipal Educational Institution Secondary School No. 29

Gergievsk Ignatieva E.S.

Tasks: continue studying the structure and functions of the musculoskeletal system; identify skeletal features associated with upright walking and labor activity; introduce the types of bone connections.

Equipment: models of human and mammalian skeletons, tables depicting human and mammalian skeletons, table depicting types of bone connections, presentation

Lesson progress

Knowledge test. Frontal survey - What is the significance of the skeleton? - What makes up the axial and accessory skeleton7 - Name the parts of the spine and the structure of the vertebra? -Determine which parts of the skeleton the given bones belong to: 1 option Sternum, parietal bone, maxillary bone, frontal bone, occipital bone, thoracic vertebra. Option 2 Cervical vertebra, zygomatic bone, nasal bone, sacral vertebra, lumbar vertebra, sphenoid bone II. Studyingnew material.

Skeleton of the upper limbs: Shoulder girdle and skeleton of the free upper limbs.

Structure, functions. Continue filling out the table

Body parts	Skeletal departments	Skeleton bones	Bone type	The nature of the bone connection	Features of the human skeleton
Upper limb	Shoulder girdle	Two blades Two collarbones	Flat (wide) Long tubular	Movable	The shoulder girdle is movable, providing greater arm mobility
	Free limb Shoulder Forearm Hand	Humerus-Ulnar and radial - Bones wrists, metacarpus, phalanges	Long tubular	Movable	Lightweight skeletal design, high mobility in shoulder joint. Greater mobility of the thumb and its ability to oppose all the others
Lower limb	Pelvic girdle	Paired bones - ilium, ischium, pubis	Flat	Fixed	Widened pelvic shape, wide-set hip joints.
	Free limb Hip Shin Foot	Femoral Tibial fibular tarsals (talus and calcaneal) metatarsals phalanges	Long tubular short spongy short tubular		Powerful development leg bones, straightness in knee joint, powerful development of ligaments Supporting foot with powerful pain. finger. Springy arch of the foot.

Conversation using pictures 27, 28 us. 57. and 29, 30 us. 58.

3. Connection of bones.

Independent work with a textbook. Assignment: using the text on p. 59, make a diagram of “Types of bone connections.”

Possible option schemes

Types of bone connections

fixed semi-movable movable

bone suture using cartilage spacers joints

A)Fixed connections: finding such connections,reasons for the existence of such connections. Conversation.

Fixed connection bones occur by fusion. Movements are limited or completely absent. The fixed connection of the bones has a protective value.

b) Semi-mobile connections: finding such connections, reasons for the existence of such connections. Conversation.

Semi-mobility is achieved by elastic cartilage pads between the bones. These pads are located between individual vertebrae. When muscles contract, these pads compress and the vertebrae move closer together. When walking, running, jumping, layers of elastic cartilage act as shock absorbers, softening sharp shocks and protecting the body from shaking. This connection has supporting, protective and motor significance.

V) Movable bone joints. The structure of the joint.

Teacher's explanation.

A movable connection is more common. They are called joints. They provide conditions for the movement of body parts. For example, joints: knee, elbow, wrist.

Joints can be simple or complex. In simple, two bones are connected (between the phalanges of the fingers), and in complex, three or more (elbow, knee, ankle).

Joint structure:

1. Articular surfaces (covered with smooth cartilage)

2. Articular head (convex bone)

3. Glenoid cavity (concave bone)

4. Bursa (filled with joint fluid)

5.Ligaments (strengthen joints)

I II . Consolidation of knowledge.

Features of the structure of the human skeleton associated with work and upright walking?

Select the appropriate answers from each column one at a time, starting with the first one.

1. Chest B. Vaulted

2. Foot G. Wide, like a bowl

3. Spine D. Thumb opposed to others

4. Upper limb E. Support for internal organs

5. Pelvis J. Protection of internal organs

A. Has bends H. Holds tools

B. Expanded to the sides I. Springy, softens shocks during movement

Answers: 1 - B, F 2 - C, I 3 - A, E 4 - D, G 5 - D, E

Homework:§ 12, answer the questions at the end of the paragraph; repeat the material about muscle tissue from § 8.

The musculoskeletal system includes the skeleton and muscles, united into a single musculoskeletal system. The functional significance of this system is inherent in its very name. The skeleton and muscles are the supporting structures of the body, limiting the cavities in which they are located. internal organs. With the help of the musculoskeletal system, one of the most important functions of the body is carried out - movement. Movement is the main external manifestation of the body’s activity and at the same time a necessary factor in its development. In conditions of limited movement, both physical and mental development slow down sharply. It has been shown that if newborn animals are deprived of the opportunity to move freely, then already in the first month their weight becomes 3 times less than that of individuals of the same litter. Motor activity, especially hand movements, is one of the necessary conditions for the normal development of the brain, its speech function and thinking. Physical activity also plays a role vital role in metabolic processes, has a positive effect on the functioning of all internal organs.

Knowledge age characteristics organs of movement and conditions conducive to their normal development are necessary for the development effective means and methods of physical education, labor training, organization of the daily routine.

The skeleton is the structural basis of the body. The skeleton forms the structural basis of the body and largely determines its shape and size (Fig. 28). The skeleton consists of bones; an adult has more than 200 of them. The role of bones is not limited to the function of support. The mineral salts that make up their tissues are one of the most important elements of metabolic processes. The bones also contain one of the main hematopoietic organs - bone marrow.

Each bone is a complex organ consisting of bone tissue, periosteum, bone marrow, blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves.

The bone, with the exception of the connecting surfaces, is covered with periosteum. This is a thin connective tissue membrane, which is rich in nerves and vessels that penetrate from it into the bone through special openings. Ligaments and muscles are attached to the periosteum. The inner layer of the periosteum consists of cells that grow and multiply, ensuring the growth of bone thickness, and in case of fractures, the formation of callus.

The structure of bones provides their main property - mechanical strength. The properties of bone are also ensured by their chemical composition. Bones contain 60% minerals, 30% organic, 10% water.

Bone minerals are represented by salts of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, many trace elements have been found (aluminum, fluorine, manganese, lead, strontium, uranium, cobalt, iron, etc.). In an adult, the skeleton contains about 1200 g of calcium, 530 g of phosphorus, 11 g of magnesium; 99% of all calcium in the human body is found in the bones. Among organic matter- fibrous protein - collagen, carbohydrates, enzymes. Minerals, especially calcium, make bones hard, while organic substances give them elasticity.

In children, organic substances predominate in the bone tissue; their skeleton is flexible, elastic, and therefore easily deformed and bent under prolonged and heavy loads and incorrect body positions. As you age, the mineral content of your bones increases, causing your bones to become less elastic and more brittle.

Organic and mineral substances make the bone strong, hard and elastic and, in combination with the structural features of bone tissue, the arrangement of its plates, oriented in the direction of pressure and tensile forces, give the bone properties that are superior to many building materials and metals. Thus, bone is 30 times harder than brick and 2.5 times harder than granite. Bone is stronger than oak. It is 9 times stronger than lead and almost as strong as cast iron,

The human femur in an upright position can withstand load pressure of up to 1.5 tons, and the tibia - up to 1.8 tons.

Growth and development of bones. Young bones grow in length due to the cartilage located between their ends and the body. By the time bone growth ends, cartilage is replaced by bone tissue. During the period of growth, the amount of water in the child’s bones decreases, and the amount of minerals increases. The content of organic substances decreases.

Skeletal development in men ends by the age of 20-24. In this case, the growth of bones in length stops, and their cartilaginous parts are replaced by bone tissue. Skeletal development in women ends 2-3 years earlier.

Structure and function of joints. There are fixed, inactive and mobile bone joints, or joints.

The fixed connection of bones occurs through their fusion. Movements are extremely limited or completely absent. The immobility of the bones of the brain skull, for example, is achieved by the fact that numerous protrusions of one bone fit into the corresponding depression of another. This connection of bones is called a suture.

Slight mobility is achieved by elastic cartilage pads between the bones. These pads are located between individual vertebrae. When muscles contract, these pads compress and the vertebrae move closer together. When walking, running, jumping, cartilage acts as a shock absorber, softening sharp shocks and protecting the body from shaking.

Movable bone joints are more common; they are provided by true joints. The articulating ends of the bones are covered with hyaline cartilage 0.2 - 0.6 mm thick. This cartilage is elastic and has a smooth shiny surface, which significantly reduces friction between bones and thereby facilitates their movement. The area of ​​articulation of bones is surrounded by a joint capsule (capsule) made of very dense connective tissue,