BARCAROLA

The Italian word "barka" means boat. A derivative of it is the barcarolle - the boatman's song. Perhaps someone will be surprised: why should the songs sung by boatmen be given a special name! After all, they can sing the same thing as everyone else... But they can’t. These songs are unusual, as are the boatmen who perform them. Barcarolle was born in the wonderful Italian city of Venice. Built on numerous islands, Venice has almost no streets. Instead, the city is cut through by canals. The doors of the houses open directly into the canals, and long black boats - gondolas - are tied to the steps. In such boats, silently gliding along the endless ribbons of canals, barcarolles were born - songs of gondolier boatmen. These songs are smooth and melodious, accompanied by measured swaying in a peculiar rhythm, as if from waves rolling in one after another. Composers fell in love with the soft song rhythm of the barcarolle (sometimes called gondoliera), and after the Venetian folk songs, barcarolles appeared, created by composers from different countries, vocal and piano barcarolles. In Mendelssohn we find Barcarolle in his “Songs Without Words”, in Tchaikovsky in the collection “The Seasons”, this is the play “June”. Barcarolles were written by Glinka, Chopin, Rachmaninov, Lyadov. And of the vocal barcarolles, the most famous and most unusual was written by Rimsky-Korsakov. This is “Song of the Vedenetsky Guest” in the opera “Sadko”. In the old days in Rus', Venice was called Vedenets, and for the Venetian merchant - the Vedenets guest - the composer composed an aria in the rhythm and character of a Venetian folk song, barcarolle.

Creative portraits of composers. - M.: Music. 1990 .

Synonyms:

See what "BARCAROLA" is in other dictionaries:

It. barcherolla, reduced. from barca, rowing boat. a) River boat in Italy, for pleasure trips. This is where they got their name from. b) Songs of gondoliers. Explanation of 25,000 foreign words that have come into use in the Russian language, with... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Modern encyclopedia

- (Italian barcarola from barca boat), song of the Venetian gondoliers; The soft, swinging movement of the melody and lyrical character are typical. Many composers have created vocal and instrumental pieces that embody the features of the folk barcarolle... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

BARCAROLE, barcarolle, female. (Italian barcarola) (music). A type of musical or vocal work of a melodic nature at a slow tempo. (After the names of the songs of Venetian gondoliers.) Ushakov’s explanatory dictionary. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 … Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

BARCAROLA, s, female. The song of the Venetian gondoliers, as well as a musical or vocal work in the style of a lyrical song. Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Noun, number of synonyms: 1 song (161) Dictionary of synonyms ASIS. V.N. Trishin. 2013… Synonym dictionary

Barcarolle- (Italian barcarola, from barca boat), song of the Venetian gondoliers, also called gondoliera (size 6/8). Characterized by a soft, swinging rhythm and lyrical melody. From the 18th century in the composer's work of F. Schubert, F. Chopin, P.I.... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Gondola on the Venetian canal Barcarolle (from Italian barka “boat”) folk song of Venetian gondoliers and ... Wikipedia

barcarolle- y, w. 1) Song of the Venetian gondoliers. Hand and hand, giving freedom to their eyes, sit in the boat and whisper to each other; she entrusts her young breast with a captivating hand to the monthly rays... Meanwhile, in the distance, either sad or cheerful, the sound of an ordinary barcarolle was heard... ... Popular dictionary of the Russian language

- (Italian barcarola, from barca boat; French barcarolle, German Barkarole) originally a song of Venetian gondoliers (also called gondolier), a song on the water. For people B. typical size 6/8, soft, oscillating movement of the melody, monotonous... ... Music Encyclopedia

Books

• Barcarolle. Album of popular plays. For flute and piano, . The collection includes the most famous works of classical composers, arranged for flute and piano. This illustrative and artistic material is widely used in the learning process...
• J. S. Bach. Agnus Dei (from the Mass in B minor). Schubert. Barcarolle. Mendelssohn. Symphony No. 4, part 2. Schumann. Symphony No. 2, movement 3, J. S. Bach, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann. The Composer publishing house (St. Petersburg) publishes a series of unusual arrangements for piano 4 hands. Their goal is to save the beginning pianist, who has barely mastered the basics of piano technique,…

Barcarolle (Italian barcarola, from barca - boat) - an instrumental or vocal piece,
inspired by the songs of Venetian gondoliers; folk song of the Venetian gondoliers.

S. Dorofeev. Barcarolle.

Barcarolle is characterized by a moderate tempo and meter of 6/8 or 12/8, with accompaniment,
depicting the splash of waves outside the gondola.
The barcarolle melody is smooth and is often accompanied by elements
musical imagery.
The character of the barcarolle is lyrical, often with a tinge of melancholy or light dreaminess.

The chatter of the carnival has died down,
Dew fell on the fields,
The month silvers the earth,
Everything is calm, the sea is sleeping.
The waves nurse the gondola...
“Sing, signora, a barcarolle!
Down with the black mask,
Hold me and sing!..”
“No, sir, I won’t take off my mask,
No time for songs, no time for affection:
I had an ominous dream,
He weighs on my heart."
“I had a dream, what is it?
Don’t believe your dreams, everything is empty;
Here's a guitar, don't be sad
Sing, play and kiss!..”
“No, sir, there’s no time for the guitar:
I dreamed that my husband was old
At night I quietly got up from my bed,
Quietly went out to the channel,
He wrapped his stiletto in the floor
And into a closed gondola -
Look like this one, there in the distance -
Six dumb oarsmen entered..."

Lev May.

I.K. Aivazovsky. Gondolier on the sea at night

In the 18th century, barcarolle became a genre of professional music. Particularly widespread
in the 19th century. Such barcarolles sometimes lack some typical signs of folk
barcarolles (for example, the major scale is used, size 12/8, 3/4).
This musical form flourished during the Romantic era.
Barcarolle as a genre of chamber vocal music is represented in the works of F. Schubert (“Barcarolle”,
“The Love Happiness of a Fisherman”), F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, M. I. Glinka (“The Blues Fell Asleep”). Available
and choral barcarolles - by F. Schubert (“The Gondolier”), J. Brahms (in “Twenty Romances and Songs
for women's choir", op. 44).

Many barcarolles are written for piano. Of these, the barcarolle op. 60 F.
Chopin is a play that approaches the genre of a poem. Barcarolles for piano were also written
F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (pieces from “Songs without Words”, op. 19 No. 6, op. 30 No. 6, op. 62 No. 5),
P. I. Tchaikovsky (barcarolle from The Four Seasons), A. K. Lyadov (op. 44), S. V. Rachmaninov
(op. 10 No. 3, for piano 4 hands - op. 11 No. 1, for 2 pianos - op. 5 No. 1),
G. Faure (13 barcarolles), B. Bartok.

Some barcarolles are based on authentic folk melodies. For example, “The Gondolier” by F. Liszt from
piano cycle "Venice and Naples" based on a melody published in Italian
composer Porukini folk barcarolle, which L. Beethoven had previously processed in his
"24 songs of different nations."

Claude Monet. Gondola.

The surface of the seas is reflected,
Rich Venice has fallen asleep,
The damp fog smoked and the moon
The high strongholds have been honed.
The running of a distant sail is barely visible,
Cold evening wave
The waters barely make noise with the oars of the gondola
And repeats the sounds of barcarolle.

It seems to me that this is the groan of the night,
How we, dissatisfied with our peace,
But again the song! and the guitars are ringing again!
Oh, be afraid, husbands, of this free song.
I advise, although it hurts me,
Do not let your beauties and wives go;
But if you yourself are unfaithful at this moment,
Then, friends! May there be peace between you!

And peace be with you, beautiful Chichizbey,
And peace be with you, crafty Melina.
Ride along at the whim of the seas,
Love often protects the abyss;
Although fate reigns over the sea,
The eternal persecutor of happy people,
But the talisman of the desert kiss
Leads the hearts away with dark dreams.

Hand with hand, giving freedom to the eyes,
They sit in the boat and whisper among themselves;
She entrusts the monthly rays
Young breast with a captivating hand,
Hitherto covered under the epanchoa,
To press the young man more tightly to his lips;
Meanwhile, in the distance, now sad, now cheerful,
The sound of an ordinary barcarolle was heard:

Like a breeze in the distant sea,
My shuttle is always free;
Like a fast flowing river,
My oar never gets tired.

The gondola glides on the water,
And time flies in love;
The water will become equal again,
Passion will never be resurrected.

Mikhail Lermontov.

Beginning with the opera “Feast of Venice” by A. Campra (1710), the barcarolle was used in operas
mainly Italian and French composers - G. Paisiello, L. J. F. Herold
(“Zampa”), F. Obera (“The Mute of Portici”, “Fra Diavolo”, etc.), G. Rossini (“William Tell”,
“Othello”), J. Offenbach (“The Tales of Hoffmann”). The widely known barcarolle written
Rimsky-Korsakov (“Song of the Vedenetsky Guest”) for the opera “Sadko”. In ancient times in Rus', Venice
was called Vedenets, and for the Venetian merchant - Vedenets guest - the composer composed an aria
in the rhythm and character of the Venetian folk song - barcarolles.
In the 20th century, barcarolles were written by Francis Poulenc, George Gershwin “Dance of the Waves,” and Leonard Bernstein.

Richard Johnson. Golden Channel.

You are with me.
You don't need more happiness.
Melancholy will pass me by.
With a quiet splash on the granite fence
The river breaks the silver trail.

Two fragments
There's a twinkle in your eyes.
Love swaddles us with soft silk.
Floats unnoticed with the current
Everything that turns our blood into water.

Barcarolle - Rahm Brown.

Barcarolle is also sometimes called gondolier.

Pierre Auguste Renoir. Gondola on the Grand Canal in Venice.

The musical characteristics of the folk barcarolle are a minor scale, 6/8 time signature, a monotonous rhythmic pattern and the use of triplets, using characteristic Italian thirds. The speed of execution is one of the varieties of moderate tempos (andantino, andante cantabile, alegretto moderato). The character of the melody is lyrical, dreamy, light and calm. All this evokes associations with the rocking of a boat on the waves and the striking of an oar on the water surface.

Literally translated from Italian, “barcarolle” means a rocking boat (barca - boat, rollare - to experience roll).

Dictionaries and encyclopedias give the following definition of this concept: the song of the Venetian gondoliers (gondolieri or barcaruoli), “the boatman’s song” or “the song on the water.”

In modern interpretation, the term barcarolle includes a vocal or instrumental piece written in the style of such a song.

The fact is that with the beginning of the era of musical romanticism, the content of European music was transformed under the influence of folklore. The gondolier “stepped” beyond folk art and became a professional genre.

The use of barcarolle in the classical format was started by the French composer A. Campra, who wrote the opera “The Venetian Feast” in 1710. Although musicologists give primacy in this matter to F. Ober (“Mute from Portici”, “Fra Diavolo”, etc.). Be that as it may, they were followed by other French and Italian composers: F. Herold (“Tsampa”) , J. Gall "Barcarolle", G. Rossini ("William Tell"), etc. One of the most famous in world musical culture is the barcarolle “Beautiful night, oh night” from J. Offenbach’s opera “The Tales of Hoffmann”. The duet for soprano and mezzo-soprano “The moon is pouring pearly light” has been an adornment of the concert repertoire of leading opera divas for many years . Offenbach's music is heard not only on stage, but also in cinema (the film Life is Beautiful, 1997).

Having become a genre of professional music, barcarolle was slightly modified in comparison with folk music: major modes appeared in it, time signatures were 12/8 or 3/4, multiple parts, etc. But the main thing was that the simplicity and artlessness of Italian music, the calm and restraint of its sound were preserved, smooth and melodious flow of sounds. Some classical works are based on authentic folk melodies. For example, “The Gondolier” from the piano cycle “Venice and Naples” by F. Liszt. Such musicians as B. Bartok, J-A turn to writing instrumental barcarolles as independent musical works. Ravina, F. Schubert, F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. French composer G. Fauré is the author of 13 dreamy and contemplative lyrical barcarolles.

Instrumental works written in this genre are called “songs without words,” thereby emphasizing their belonging to love lyrics. The imagination of composers depicts the blossoming of feelings in the lap of nature. F. Schubert’s play “The Fisherman’s Love Joy” and F. Chopin’s inspired opus “Barcarolle, op.60” are close to the poem in genre. These are sensual stories with confessions and kisses accompanied by the whisper of leaves and the splash of water.

The variety of interpretations of this musical form is complemented by:

• choral barcarolles: “The Gondolier” (F. Schubert) and “Twenty Romances and Songs for Women’s Choir” (I. Brahms)
• ensemble instrumental presentation of pieces: for violin and piano (E. Soret), for flute and piano (A. Casella).

Barcarolle as an example of Russian musical romanticism

The fusion of landscape and experience, the unity of the pictorial and expressive - this is what the barcarolle embodies.

Russian composers of the era of musical romanticism brought sincerity, light sadness and spirituality to the melodic love songs of Italian gondoliers. The works of S. Rachmaninov, A. Lyadov, A. Arensky, A. Glazunov, A. Rubinstein, I. Laskovsky, S. Lyapunov, which have become classics of this genre, are still included in popular collections of pedagogical repertoire for professionals and amateurs of piano music.

The romance “The blue ones fell asleep...” by M. Glinka and the play “June” from the cycle “The Seasons” by P. Tchaikovsky are surprisingly good. Largely due to the fact that they were written under the impression of the composers’ visit to the Queen of the Adriatic - Venice.

Of the Russian vocal barcarolles, “Song of the Vedenets Guest,” written by N. Rimsky-Korsakov for the opera “Sadko,” is recognized throughout the world as the most unusual. The Venetian merchant performing it is so eloquent and convincing that Sadko decides to go overseas to the mysterious country of Vedenets (as Venice was called in Rus') for happiness for Novgorod.

The heyday of barcarolle occurred at the beginning of the 19th century. But to say that this beautiful word fell out of use with the end of the era of romanticism would not be entirely correct. In the 20th century, composers such as F. Poulenc, J. Gershwin, and L. Bernstein turned to writing music in the barcarolle style. Today, while taking a walk along the canals of Venice, tourists have the opportunity to hear melodic and bright Italian songs from the lips of gondoliers.
Just don’t ask them to sing “O Sole Mio” - the song has nothing to do with the history of the city or the “songs of the boatmen”. But the Neapolitan barcarolle, dedicated to the beauty of the coastal town of Santa Lucia, is what most likely inspired Evgenia Zikh to write poetic lines: “The Barcarolle captivates me.” And the sounds are so wonderfully good. There is a lot of gentle minor in them. They are the consonance of my soul."

The Italian word "barka" means boat. A derivative of it is the barcarolle - the boatman's song. Perhaps someone will be surprised: why should the songs sung by boatmen be given a special name! After all, they can sing the same thing as everyone else... But they can’t. These songs are unusual, as are the boatmen who perform them. was born in the wonderful Italian city of Venice. Built on numerous islands, Venice has almost no streets. Instead, the city is cut through by canals. The doors of the houses open directly into the canals, and long black boats - gondolas - are tied to the steps. In such boats, silently gliding along the endless ribbons of canals, barcarolles were born - songs of gondolier boatmen. These songs are smooth and melodious, accompanied by measured swaying in a peculiar rhythm, as if from waves rolling in one after another.
Composers fell in love with the soft song rhythm of the barcarolle (sometimes called gondoliera), and after the Venetian folk songs, barcarolles appeared, created by composers from different countries, vocal and piano barcarolles. In Mendelssohn we find Barcarolle in his “Songs without Words”, in Tchaikovsky - in the collection “The Seasons”, this is the play “June”. Barcarolles were written by Glinka, Chopin, Rachmaninov, Lyadov. And of the vocal barcarolles, the most famous and most unusual was written by Rimsky-Korsakov. This is “Song of the Vedenetsky Guest” in the opera “Sadko”. In the old days in Rus', Venice was called Vedenets, and for the Venetian merchant - the Vedenets guest - the composer composed an aria in the rhythm and character of a Venetian folk song, barcarolle.

View value Barcarolle in other dictionaries

Barcarolle- barcarolles, w. (Italian barcarola) (music). A type of musical or vocal work of a melodic nature at a slow tempo. (After the names of the songs of Venetian gondoliers.)
Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

Barcarolle J.— 1. Song of the Venetian gondoliers. 2. A vocal or instrumental work of a lyrical nature in the style of such a song.
Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova

Barcarolle- -s; and. [ital. barcarola from barca - boat].
1. Song of the Venetian gondoliers.
2. An instrumental or vocal work of a lyrical nature in the style of such a song.
Kuznetsov's Explanatory Dictionary

Barcarolle- (Italian barcarola - from barca - boat), song of the Venetian gondoliers; The soft, swinging movement of the melody and lyrical character are typical. Many composers have created vocal........
Large encyclopedic dictionary

Barcarolle— - song of the Venetian gondoliers.
Historical Dictionary

SEASONS

June. Barcarolle

Let's go ashore, there are waves
They will kiss our feet

They will shine on us...
(A. N. Pleshcheev)

Barca is an Italian word meaning boat. Barcarolle in Italian folk music was the name given to songs of a boatman or oarsman. These songs were especially widespread in Venice, a city on the embankments of countless canals, along which people traveled on boats day and night and sang at the same time. These songs were, as a rule, melodious, and the rhythm and accompaniment imitated the smooth movement of the boat under the uniform splashes of the oars. In Russian music of the first half of the 19th century, barcarolles became widespread. They became an integral part of Russian lyrical vocal music, and were also reflected in Russian poetry and painting.

The title of the play comes from the Italian word barcarola. Like many borrowed words (for example, “waltz”, “sonata”, “nocturne”) that came to us from other languages, it entered the Russian language and denotes a musical genre. In Italian, this word is derived from two words - barca, which means “boat”, “barge”, and rolla - literally “rolling”. Thus, musical pieces in the barcarolle genre are always inspired by images of the water element, but not stormy, raging, but calm, with a measured, lulling and dreamy sway. The barcarolle was originally the song of the Venetian gondoliers - gondoliera. The songs of gondoliers, which are soft and peaceful in nature, are, in essence, barcarolles. Typical features of a barcarolle: minor mode (although major barcarolles are also known), three-beat time signature (6/8), the oscillating nature of the melody. The history of music knows many barcarolles : F. Schubert - “Barcarolle”, “The Fisherman’s Luck of Love”, M. Glinka - romance “The Blues Asleep...”, F. Chopin - piano piece “Barcarolle”, F. Mendelssohn - pieces from the cycle “Songs without Words” (op. 19, No. 6, op. 30, No. 6, op. 62, No. 5), plays by A. Rubinstein (op. 30, No. 1, op. 45, op. 50, op. 104, No. 4 and others, six in total), A. Lyadov (op. 44), S. Rachmaninov (op. 10, No. 3). All of them, with all their diversity, have the typical features of a barcarolle.

Let's listen to the sound of P. Tchaikovsky's June play. We will immediately notice that it does not fit into the range of traditional barcarolles:

1) it is not three-beat, but four-beat, that is, 4/4 according to its musical notation; to the ear, it is more likely to be bipartite - two halves in each measure;

2) with great stretch, one can talk here about the image of any kind of water element, which is usually conveyed in plays of this kind primarily by a peculiar - namely, “barcarolle” - accompaniment; in the accompaniment, sweet and pleasant in itself, there is little sense of “water ripple” or “light excitement”; this is a typical accompaniment of an urban romance. The character of the melody is also quite romance-like, although one can come to terms with this, since the barcarolle does not contradict the song, but also still in three-beat, not even, meter;

3) the poem itself, from which the first stanza is taken as an epigraph, does not give rise to an association with the barcarolle.

Here is the poem in its entirety:

Song

Let's go ashore; there are waves there
They will kiss our feet;
Stars with mysterious sadness
They will shine on us.

There's a fragrant breeze there
Your curls will develop;
Let's go out... Swaying sadly,
Poplar is calling us.

In a long and sweet oblivion,
Listening to the noise of the branches,
We'll take a break from sadness
We will forget people.

They tormented us a lot,
They tormented me a lot, my friend:
Those - with their stupid love,
Those - endless enmity.

We will forget everything in a month
It will shine in the dark azure,
Everything is like nature and God
The nightingale will sing a hymn!

In this poem we are invited to “go ashore,” that is, to come closer to the water (not at all to go ashore from a boat after, for example, riding in it); we hear how “the poplar is calling us to itself,” and we can “listen to the noise of the branches” - also, presumably, on the shore, and not on the water. In a word, the conclusion suggests itself that the title of the play is somewhat accidental. As a piece of music this piece is wonderful, but it is not a barcarolle at all. Rather, it looks like an elegiac romance, like a “song without words.” It, like the rest of the plays in The Seasons, is written in three-part form.

The middle part brings contrast - a clear revival to the somewhat melancholy mood of the extreme parts. This movement is in a major key, its movement according to the composer’s stage directions is somewhat more lively, and further, as it develops, the music acquires an enthusiastic character. In this section of the play, differences in the interpretation of the work are especially evident, associated, firstly, with differences in the text that different editions of the work give, and secondly, with differences in the emotional expression with which this episode is performed by different pianists (we use each convenient occasion to draw attention to the importance of the problem of interpretation for music, that is, its live performance).

As for the first circumstance - differences in the text - to a person not familiar with the practice of notation, this may seem strange, if not wild. But the fact is that musical works are not always published exactly in the form in which they were written by the composer. Editors often make their own additions, corrections, and all sorts of changes to the author's text. And this happens in music to a much greater extent than, say, in literature. Still, you need to have a fair amount of courage to “edit” (in the sense that this happens in music) written by Pushkin, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky... In music, every editor considers himself entitled to bring a lot of his own into the text, in this case, P. Tchaikovsky. Thus, in the middle section of this play in the editions (at some point) a remark appeared, allegro giocoso (Italian - soon, playfully), which is not in Tchaikovsky's autograph 1 .

Such a seemingly insignificant detail entailed performing - artistic - errors, which turned into sins against good taste, when pianists, in order to demonstrate the “strength of their feelings,” began to turn this bright and joyful episode into an occasion for the outpouring of “violent passions.” The contrast, exaggerated in this way, turned the joyfully inspired episode, followed by a recitative phrase (it was also added energico (Italian - energetically), which is missing from Tchaikovsky, you feel - an addition of the same kind!), into an expression of an intense dramatic collision that is inappropriate here. The composer's plan turned out to be distorted.

A listener at a concert who does not know and has not seen the original author’s recording (music music) or an authorized lifetime edition, trusting only the performer, may remain bewildered if he has developed artistic taste and a sense of proportion. A sense of proportion is something that is absolutely necessary for a performer of Tchaikovsky’s music in order not to fall into sweetness, sentimentality and false pathos. These sins are a real danger, because in Tchaikovsky’s music there really is charm, feeling, and pathos. But there is no falsehood of feelings.

So, after the lively and inspired middle section, the melodies and mood of the first movement return, the major of the middle section again gives way to the minor. This section is called the reprise. But the repetition of the first part here is not literal - the main melody, which, by the way, is still entrusted to a female voice (it sounds in the mezzo-soprano register), is echoed in more extensive phrases by a clearly male voice in the baritone register. The result is an expressive conversation - with questions, answers, closely converging intonations or at other moments, on the contrary, moving away from each other - in a word, literally a dialogue, like human speech, in the transmission of which P. Tchaikovsky was an unsurpassed master.

The scene - not so much in a boat, but on the banks of a river or lake - ended, the lovers (there is no doubt that it was them) left, only the landscape remained... The melodies dissolved, arpeggiated chords swaying rhythmically (their sounds are played on the piano not simultaneously, but as would be broken, like on a guitar or harp) they nod at us, as if waving goodbye. Everything freezes...

“Barcarolle” already during P. Tchaikovsky’s lifetime became a very popular work. Sharing with N. von Meck his thoughts on the prevalence of his works abroad, the composer wrote on March 19, 1878: “I was even surprised to find there arrangements completely unknown to me until then, such as, for example, an arrangement of a piano barcarolle (g-moll) for violin and piano and Andante of the first quartet for flutes."

1 In publications of our time one can find an explanation that this remark first appeared in the publication of P. Jurgenson. I dare to testify that in this edition (it is now before my eyes, and we have given its title page in the introductory article about the cycle) this remark is not present.

Text by Alexander Maykapar
Based on materials from the magazine “Art”

On the poster: Rubens Santoro. Venice. Jesuit Church (late XIX - early XX centuries)